Publications
Computer-Assisted Reading Tools Marks: First Step of a Promising Protocol
A groundbreaking multi-modal method integrating rock-cut structures into archaeological studies has been developed, offering new insights into the construction phases and occupation sequences of Göreme 4b church in Cappadocia. This interdisciplinary approach combines building archaeology, traceology, photogrammetry, and computer-assisted analysis to create high-resolution 3D models, relational databases, and GIS-based vectorisation of stratigraphic units (SUs). The study revealed previously unseen features such as a Christian cross near a tomb and confirmed that initial excavation proceeded from the top down. It also identified multiple phases of tool use, including quarry picks and polkas. While more time-consuming than traditional methods, this systematic protocol significantly enhances interpretive precision and can be extended to larger areas and other structures. Future developments may include artificial intelligence for automated tool mark recognition, underscoring the potential of digital technologies in refining structural analysis and conservation strategies.
Translating Chivalry. The Ethics and Aesthetics of Warfare in the Age of the Komnenoi (1081-1204)
Chivalry, traditionally associated with medieval Europe, emerged as a shared aesthetic and ethical framework among the Byzantine military elite during the Komnenoi dynasty (1081–1204). This study reveals that warfare was glamorized in Byzantium, mirroring parallel developments in the Latin West and Islamic world, through the restructuring of aristocratic identity around martial ideals. By analyzing visual, textual, and material evidence—including rock-cut churches in Cappadocia, lead seals, coins, and icons—the research demonstrates how chivalric conventions diffused across the Mediterranean, shaping representational strategies and artistic expression. The study also highlights the role of performance, classical antiquity manipulation, and ornamentation in enhancing warrior identities, offering a nuanced reinterpretation of word-image relations and ephemeral cultural practices.
Assessing the Impact of Lichens on Saint Simeon Church, Paşabağ Valley (Cappadocia, Turkey): Potential Damaging Effects versus Protection from Rainfall and Winds
Lichen colonization on Saint Simeon Church, part of the UNESCO World Heritage Site Göreme National Park and the Rock Sites of Cappadocia, primarily offers protective benefits against weathering rather than causing damage. A multidisciplinary study found that lichens form encrustations with calcium oxalate layers, which mitigate water penetration and eolian erosion, reducing deterioration on the northwest side of the church despite exposure to wind-driven rain (WDR) and freezing-thawing cycles. In contrast, the northeast side, with lower lichen coverage, showed more severe weathering. The research highlights the potential for integrating lichen bioprotection into conservation strategies to enhance monument preservation.
Byzantine Rock-Cut Architecture in Cappadocia and Beyond: The State of Scholarship
Rock-cut architecture, long overlooked in Byzantine studies, is now recognized as a primary means for Byzantine society to engage with and transform its environment. This critical review synthesizes current scholarship on rock-cut sites in Cappadocia, highlighting their excellent preservation and potential to enrich research on spatial practices, economic activities, and daily life. The study emphasizes the interplay between rock-cut and masonry traditions, exploring practical motivations and sacred associations behind their use. It also identifies methodological challenges and future directions, advocating for a nuanced understanding of Byzantine landscapes through appropriate theoretical frameworks.
Determination of Satisfaction Levels of Individuals Participating in Cultural Tourism With ChatGPT
A novel application of ChatGPT demonstrates its potential to revolutionize the analysis of tourist satisfaction by accurately parsing and interpreting online comments from UNESCO World Heritage Sites, including Göreme National Park. The study found that ChatGPT effectively identifies both positive and negative factors influencing visitor experiences across multiple landmarks such as Zelve Open Air Museum, Paşabağı, Güray Museum, and Kaymaklı Underground City. By assigning satisfaction scores to these factors, the AI tool provides a quantitative measure of tourist feedback, offering deeper insights into cultural tourism dynamics. This approach enhances traditional methods of sentiment analysis, paving the way for more nuanced evaluations in heritage site management.
Épitaphes paléochrétiennes et médiévales d’Eğri Taş kilisesi à Ihlara en Cappadoce
A comprehensive reexamination of paleochristian and medieval epitaphs from the Eğri Taş kilisesi complex in Ihlara Valley, Cappadocia, reveals previously unknown inscriptions and corrects readings of existing ones. Through three fieldwork trips (2006, 2012, 2019), researchers identified thirteen unpublished epitaphs and refined eleven known ones, dating them to two distinct periods: late antique (likely 6th century) and medieval (9th–11th centuries). These findings significantly expand the corpus of Christian funerary epigraphy in Cappadocia, offering new insights into burial practices and historical occupation phases at this UNESCO World Heritage Site.
An Adventure Tourism Story in the Branding Process: Hot Air Balloon Management Successes in Cappadocia
Cappadocia's hot air balloon rides have become a globally sought-after adventure tourism experience, significantly enhancing the region's branding and appeal. The study identifies three key factors contributing to this success: the region's unique geological landscape, which provides a stunning backdrop for ballooning; strong collaboration among stakeholders, ensuring safety, efficiency, and visitor satisfaction; and strategic marketing efforts that integrate balloon rides with other tourism offerings like cave hotels and historical sites. These findings offer practical insights for destination managers aiming to leverage adventure tourism in branding efforts.
Sürdürülebilirlik Ekseninde İdeal Ziyaretçi Yönetiminin Oluşturulması: Göreme Milli Parkı Paydaşları Üzerine Bir Alan Araştırması (Creating the Ideal Visitor Management on the Basis of Sustainability: A Field Research on Goreme National Park Stakeholders)
A study on Göreme National Park reveals significant gaps in the enforcement and monitoring of sustainability measures aimed at protecting its resources. Despite established rules for tourist activities to preserve the park's ecological and cultural values, compliance is inconsistent due to insufficient staffing and oversight. The research identifies critical areas needing improvement: stricter implementation of visitor management strategies, enhanced security protocols, and better public education about the site's conservation needs. Using a case study approach with 34 stakeholder interviews, the study applies content and descriptive analysis to highlight these challenges and propose actionable solutions for sustainable tourism in the region.
Evaluation of Fresh Properties and Rheological Behavior of lime-based Grouts with Cappadocia Waste Earth
A groundbreaking approach to preserving Cappadocia's UNESCO World Heritage Site demonstrates that incorporating Cappadocia waste earth (CWE) into lime-based grouts can effectively consolidate and strengthen the region's iconic rock-cut structures, fairy chimneys, and masonries. This method not only safeguards these valuable artifacts but also addresses a significant environmental issue by repurposing approximately 10 million cubic meters of excavated waste annually. The study found that varying CWE dosages (30%, 40%, and 50% by weight), alongside different ambient temperatures (5°C, 20°C, and 40°C) and constant shearing, critically influence the rheological performance of grouts, enabling precise injection requirements for optimal restoration. These insights provide a sustainable solution to both structural preservation and environmental pollution in this fragile ecosystem.
Characterizing the Indoor Acoustical Climate of the Religious and Secular Rock-Cut Structures of Cappadocia
Rock-cut structures in Cappadocia, recognized as UNESCO World Heritage Sites, exhibit unique acoustic properties due to the region's specific tuff stone. A recent study identified that a rock-cut church in Cappadocia is the most reverberant space among five selected sites (one church and four residential halls), making it highly suitable for liturgical practices. The remaining spaces were found to be more favorable for speech-related activities, such as conversations or lectures. The research employed in-situ field tests to measure acoustic parameters like EDT, T20, T30, C80, CD50, and STI, providing quantitative evidence of the spatial features and cultural significance of these ancient structures. Additionally, the study compared the sound absorption performance of Cappadocian tuff stone with other natural caves and rock-cut structures worldwide, offering insights into its acoustic behavior relative to global counterparts.
Evaluation of tourist reviews on TripAdvisor for the protection of the world heritage sites: Text mining approach
A text mining analysis of 4183 TripAdvisor reviews from 2018 to 2020 reveals that Göreme National Park and the Rock Sites of Cappadocia are generally well-protected with high positive perceptions (75%) and low negative evaluations (33%). While tourists praised churches, fairy chimneys, valleys, and underground cities, concerns about protection emerged, particularly regarding frescoes in rock churches where terms like 'painted' and 'drawn' indicated sensitivity to damage. Negative reviews often mentioned overcrowding, steep terrain, and extra payments. The study also found that only 30.6% of tourists were aware they were visiting a World Heritage Site. Recommendations are made to address visitor-induced damage to preserve the region's natural and cultural assets.
Turkish School, A Coachman with a Team of Horses and Covered Carriage, 18th century
A late 18th-century oil painting from the Turkish School, depicting a coachman with a team of horses and a covered carriage, offers insights into historical transportation, occupational health risks, and cultural exchanges. The study highlights that Ottoman-era coaches were designed for affluence, featuring gilded bodies and latticework doors, contrasting with English counterparts. It also explores the ergonomic challenges faced by coachmen, such as prolonged sitting and whole-body vibration, which correlate with musculoskeletal discomfort and cardiovascular risks akin to modern professional drivers. Additionally, the summary delves into Cappadocia's historical significance, linking its unique geological features—like erionite—to unrecognized mesothelioma cases, while tracing the region's artistic evolution from Byzantine influences to Ottoman patronage and European reciprocal cultural impacts.
Multiple phase churches in Cappadocia
A detailed analysis of two rock-cut churches in Cappadocia—Timios Stavros Monastery and Sarıca 2—reveals their multi-phase evolution, offering insights into their functional adaptations and spatial relationships. Despite the absence of historical documentation, the study establishes a relative chronology for these 10th to 11th-century sites by examining architectural changes, expansions, and aesthetic shifts. The research suggests that these modifications reflected broader trends such as demographic changes, patron influences, or evolving liturgical needs, while also proposing specialized functions for unique spatial configurations, including monastic and hermitage uses.
Research of 2006 and 2014 UNESCO Periodic Report on Goreme and Cappadocia Rock Site
UNESCO's periodic reports on Göreme National Park and the Rock Sites of Cappadocia, analyzed in this study, reveal significant insights into the conservation status and challenges faced by this dual cultural and natural heritage site. Designated by UNESCO in 1985, the site faces pressures from tourism and environmental changes that threaten its unique geological formations and archaeological significance. The research examines the 2006 and 2014 reports to assess progress in preservation efforts, highlighting both achievements and ongoing concerns. Key findings include the site's vulnerability to erosion and the need for balanced tourism management to sustain its ecological integrity while preserving its cultural heritage.
Tourists’ Need for Uniqueness as a Representation of Differentiated Identity
European tourists are more driven by the desire to avoid similarity when seeking uniqueness, while Asian tourists show stronger connections between their need for uniqueness and perceived authenticity, particularly object-based authenticity. This study reveals that tourists' need for uniqueness (TNFU) significantly influences both object-based and existential authenticity in heritage contexts, which in turn affects their emotions and behavioral intentions. Using partial least squares analysis on data from 474 tourists visiting Göreme National Park and the Rock Sites of Cappadocia, researchers found distinct patterns across nationalities, with TNFU having a greater impact on Asian tourists' emotional responses to object-based authenticity. The findings provide insights for destination marketers to tailor experiences that cater to diverse cultural preferences.
Goreme Open Air Museum
Göreme Open Air Museum, located within the UNESCO World Heritage Site of Göreme National Park and the Rock Sites of Cappadocia, stands out for its unique blend of natural and cultural significance. This region, active from the 4th to the 13th century, served as a hub for monastic life, with rock formations carved into monasteries, churches, chapels, dining halls, kitchens, and living spaces. The museum's churches are notable for their use of two distinct painting techniques: correction-based methods and secco (tempera) or fresco techniques on rock surfaces, often depicting biblical themes and the life of Jesus. Founded by St. Basil, an influential figure in early Christianity, the site also played a pivotal role in the development of monastic education systems, later influencing other regions like Soğanlı, Ihlara, and Açıksaray. The museum's architectural and artistic features reflect both natural erosion processes and human ingenuity in adapting these rock formations for religious and communal purposes.
Kapadokya Bölgesinin Drenaj Özellikleri
Research identifies drainage properties as critical factors shaping the unique badlands morphology and fairy chimneys of Göreme National Park and Cappadocia. The study reveals that ignimbrite and tuff formations exhibit the highest drainage density (15.3 km/km²), significantly influencing landform development, while plateau surfaces like basalt, dacite, and andesite show markedly lower densities. Using GIS-based analysis of 1/25,000 scale topography maps, the team digitized valley thalwegs and applied Strahler order methods to quantify stream orders, finding that 53% and 22.7% of streams belong to first and second orders, respectively. These findings underscore the determinant role of drainage conditions in sculpting Cappadocia's iconic landscapes.
Rock-cut tombs and churches in Cappadocia during the Roman and Byzantine periods. The analysis of chaînes opératoires to understand the economy and sociology of the building sites
Rock-cut tombs and churches in Cappadocia, dating to the Roman and Byzantine periods, reveal that their construction required specialized professional skills, challenging the assumption that monks were solely responsible for their creation. Analysis of chaînes opératoires—technical processes and tool marks on soft volcanic ignimbrite—shows complex rock-cutting techniques, suggesting a more organized and skilled workforce than previously thought. This study sheds light on the economy and sociology of these sites, questioning long-held hypotheses about their construction methods. By examining the evolution of techniques and landscape modifications, it also provides insights into why such monuments became widespread only in the medieval period, addressing historical questions like the origin of the 'Troglodyte' appellation for Cappadocia.
Çanlı Kilise Settlement
A cultural rupture during the Arab incursions is evidenced by the settlement patterns and historical records of Çanlı Kilise, a small but prosperous rural community in Western Cappadocia. The main settlement, dating to the middle Byzantine period, features an elegant masonry church and two dozen rock-cut residential complexes, likely serving as an administrative center linked to the nearby fortress of Akhisar. Archaeological surveys revealed an older site to the north with a sixth or seventh-century cruciform church, which was abandoned and not resettled during the middle Byzantine period. This finding, combined with Arab accounts of the fortress's repeated capture, suggests significant societal disruption in the region.
Rock-cut Architecture
Rock-cut architecture in Byzantine Anatolia, particularly in Cappadocia, stands out for its unique adaptation to geological and historical contexts. This study sheds light on the prevalence of such structures by examining their forms, types of settlements, and traditional carving techniques. While many settlement patterns remain unclear, the research provides valuable insights into the 'otherness' of rock-cut architecture through detailed archaeological analysis and photographic documentation. The findings contribute to a deeper understanding of Byzantine settlement practices in these regions.
The Possibility of Sericulture in Byzantine Cappadocia
Byzantine Cappadocia, renowned for its unique rock-cut remains and lunar-like landscapes, may have supported sericulture despite historical perceptions of water scarcity. A study challenges the notion that the region was barren by examining archaeological evidence on water capture, storage, and conveyance techniques. It argues that substantial water supplies were available, enabling significant agricultural activities. The research uses sigillographic evidence, painted depictions, and written sources to suggest that Cappadocia possessed the institutional, environmental, and logistical prerequisites for silk production during Late Antiquity and the middle Byzantine period. While the study does not definitively confirm sericulture, it calls for further investigation into this possibility, highlighting potential avenues for future research.
Transformation of the ‘Sacred’ Image of a Byzantine Cappadocian Settlement (Chapter 6)
A recent study challenges long-held assumptions about Byzantine Cappadocia, revealing that the region was not exclusively a monastic center and its history extended beyond the Seljuk period. The research focuses on Aciksaray, a settlement previously misclassified as a Christian monastery due to generalized scholarly beliefs. Through analysis of architectural elements and historical legends, the study demonstrates Aciksaray's dual Christian-Islamic identity, shaped by its strategic location between these two worlds. This adaptability has allowed the site's 'sacred' image to persist through medieval transitions and into modern times, offering new insights into the fluidity of cultural identities in border regions.
Yerel Halk Gözüyle Turistik Talebin Kültürel Mirasa Etkisi: Kapadokya Örneği
Local perceptions in Cappadocia reveal a nuanced view of tourism's impact on cultural heritage. While residents acknowledge both positive and negative effects, they generally support tourism activities that enhance natural landscapes like fairy chimneys and ballooning, while advocating for reforms to mitigate harm to cultural elements. The study, using Likert-scale questionnaires and ANOVA analysis, found significant variation in perspectives based on demographics such as age, education, profession, and residence. Residents perceive the region's capacity to serve visitors and its ability to meet touristic demand as 'sufficient,' suggesting a balanced but cautious approach to tourism development.
Conveying Cappadocia. A new representation model for rock-cave architecture by contour lines and chromatic codes
A novel representation model for rock-cave architecture, combining contour lines and chromatic codes, offers a breakthrough in visualizing the complex geometric and spatial relationships of rupestrian settlements. This approach transforms traditional orthogonal projections into synthetic drawings that effectively convey hidden features of Cappadocia's cave architecture, addressing long-standing challenges in surveying such structures. The method leverages laser scanning for precise geometric registration but introduces manual chromatic coding to enhance interpretability. Developed specifically for Cappadocia's unique rupestrian habitat, this model bridges the gap between automated data capture and human comprehension of intricate architectural forms.
Digital non-metric image-based documentation for the preservation and restoration of mural paintings: the case of the Üzümlü Rock-hewn Church, Turkey
A novel, low-cost digital documentation method for mural paintings in rock-hewn churches, such as Üzümlü Church in Cappadocia, Turkey, has been developed. This approach leverages non-metric high-resolution imaging to capture detailed conditions of mural paintings without requiring specialized equipment or extensive human resources. Unlike traditional photogrammetric software, which often lacks sufficient resolution due to hardware limitations, this method enables rapid, in-situ documentation that supports preservation and restoration efforts by comparing approximate images with actual mural conditions. The study demonstrates the potential of this technique to bridge gaps in digital preservation while maintaining accuracy and efficiency.
Geographic, Geologic and Human Factors Affecting the Selection of Church Sites in Niğde Province, Central Anatolia Region, Turkey
Rock type, terrain morphology, and proximity to roads were the key factors influencing the selection of church sites in Niğde Province during the transition from underground temples to above-ground stone ashlar churches (SACs) in the 18th century. The study reveals that the soft tufaceous geology of Cappadocia provided both shelter and protection, shaping early Christian refuge strategies and religious spread across Anatolia. This analysis, based on geological, geographical, and human factors, highlights how environmental conditions and infrastructure guided the evolution of sacred architecture in this UNESCO-listed region.
Rock Mechanics and Rock Engineering: From the Past to the Future
A comprehensive exploration of rock mechanics and engineering, 'Rock Mechanics and Rock Engineering: From the Past to the Future' presents groundbreaking insights from EUROCK2016, an international symposium held in Cappadocia, Turkey. This collection of 204 accepted papers and eight keynote addresses delves into diverse aspects of rock mechanics, emphasizing future directions in engineering technologies. The contributions span fundamental theories to practical applications, including stability analysis, design methodologies, and the preservation of historical sites like Göreme National Park. Advanced analytical and numerical methods are highlighted, alongside innovative approaches for underground excavations, waste disposal, and carbon dioxide sequestration. The symposium, organized by the Turkish National Society for Rock Mechanics, continues a distinguished European series, offering valuable insights for researchers and professionals in rock mechanics and engineering.
Managing Cultural Uses and Features
Göreme National Park and the Rock Sites of Cappadocia showcase stunning geological formations shaped by erosion of soft volcanic rocks into distinctive pillars and minaret-like structures. The study focuses on managing cultural uses and features within this unique landscape, addressing challenges related to preservation while accommodating tourism and heritage conservation. The research likely employs a multidisciplinary approach, integrating geological analysis with cultural heritage management strategies to ensure sustainable protection of these iconic formations.
Micro‐Raman And Micro‐Stratigraphic Analysis Of The Painting Materials In The Rock‐Hewn Church Of The Forty Martyrs In Şahinefendi, Cappadocia (Turkey)
A micro-Raman and micro-stratigraphic analysis of the rock-hewn church of the Forty Martyrs in Şahinefendi, Cappadocia (Turkey), revealed unique insights into medieval painting techniques. The study identified a white or pinkish plaster base, with calcite, gypsum, anhydrite, and calcium oxalate detected through spectroscopic methods. Scanning electron microscopy further uncovered minor variations, such as diatoms in certain layers and biotite, lime lumps, and plant fragments in others. Notably, the analysis detected lead-based compounds and jarosite alongside traditional pigments, providing rare evidence of material composition and degradation processes in this UNESCO World Heritage Site.
Açıksaray “Open Palace”: a Byzantine rock-cut settlement in Cappadocia
Açıksaray, a Byzantine rock-cut settlement in Cappadocia, stands out for its elaborate courtyard complexes carved entirely from volcanic rock. Unlike other regional structures, these complexes feature monumental façades and utilitarian spaces like stables, offering new insights into medieval life in Cappadocia. This study analyzes Açıksaray's architectural design and occupation stages through survey results, revealing its secular and elite character. It contributes to the understanding of Byzantine domestic architecture by providing detailed evidence that is scarce in existing research.
Cappadocian ignimbrite cave churches: stone degradation and conservation strategies
Research on Cappadocia's ignimbrite cave churches reveals that smectite and illite minerals significantly degrade stone structures, causing cracks, decohesion, exfoliation, and disaggregation. Consolidation tests using three commercial silica-based products—NanoEstel, Estel 1000, and Estel 1100—showed varying effectiveness. While solvent-based products (Estel 1000, Estel 1100) demonstrated better distribution within the rock, NanoEstel proved superior in reducing capillary water absorption without altering the stone's porous structure. The study highlights the potential of NanoEstel for preserving these unique World Heritage Sites by improving resistance to weathering while maintaining stone integrity.
Localization of the source of large silicic ignimbrites through magnetic techniques : applications in Turkey
Research using paleomagnetic and rock-magnetic techniques has identified the source areas of large silicic ignimbrites in Turkey, including two poorly studied regions. In Cappadocia, stable thermoremanent magnetization (TRM) revealed a primary Ti-magnetite origin, while oblique magnetic fabrics were linked to local disturbances from pumices and lithic clasts. Magnetic fabric analysis confirmed the reliability of flow directions, with MD Ti-magnetite as the main carrier. In the Afyon-Eskişehir region, field data and magnetic fabric results pinpointed two source areas: the Kırka caldera for the Incik and Sabuncu ignimbrites (VEI 7 and 6, respectively) and near Bayat for the Seydiler ignimbrite (VEI 7). The study demonstrates that magnetic techniques can accurately locate eruption sources and estimate volcanic magnitudes, offering new insights into Turkey's geological history.
Effects of Geo-Engineering Characteristics of the Soft Tuffs and Environmental Conditions on the Rock-Hewn Historical Structures at Zelve Open Air Museum, Cappadocia, Turkey
Erosion rates of up to 1.24 mm per year threaten the stability of rock-hewn structures at Zelve Open Air Museum, Cappadocia. The study found that cyclic freezing-thawing and wetting-drying processes significantly accelerate degradation under saturated conditions, leading to failure modes like spalling and slabbing. These phenomena alter the geometry of openings, increasing structural instability. The research combined field observations with erosion measurements over five years to assess the impact of environmental factors on the soft tuffs surrounding historical structures.
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