Publications
After Highly Radiogenic Lead: The Flow of Late Yinxu Lead During the Dynastic Transition of Shang–Zhou China
A distinct type of lead, identified through isotopic analysis, reveals significant inter-regional communication during the Shang–Zhou transition in China. This lead, found both as ingots at Yinxu and pure objects at Zhengxiaozhuang, suggests stronger ties between the Central Plains and the Yangtze River region via western Dabie Mountain routes rather than eastern paths. The study highlights the technological innovation of incorporating lead into copper alloys and its role in mapping ancient trade networks.
Dining at the Great Settlement Shang: Everyday meals, ordinary people, and urbanism at Yinxu, Late Shang China (ca. 1250–1046 BCE)
A millet-centric agricultural system, rather than crop diversification, ensured food stability during the Late Shang dynasty (ca. 1250–1046 BCE) at Yinxu, the capital of the Shang state. This finding challenges traditional assumptions about urbanization in ancient China and highlights the role of agricultural intensification in supporting population growth. The study, using stable carbon and nitrogen isotope analysis on human skeletal tissues, reveals significant dietary variations among sub-adults and craft specialists, offering new insights into social identity formation at the neighborhood level. Unlike previous research focused on elite narratives, this work centers on everyday food practices, demonstrating how diet shaped social distinctions in urban settings.
Quantifying the Trajectory of Social Complexity at the Xia–Shang Transition: A Quantitative Archaeological Study of the Erlitou and Yinxu Sites
A quantitative analysis of ceramic assemblages, jade distributions, spatial layouts, and handicraft production at the Erlitou and Yinxu sites reveals a trajectory of increasing social complexity from the late Xia to the late Shang periods. The study demonstrates that rank differentiation was progressively reinforced through institutionalized ritual-vessel assemblages, while spatial control shifted from physical segregation to functional zoning. Handicraft production became more specialized and concentrated, indicating a transformation in early state power—from sacral monopoly to institutionalized stratification. These findings provide empirical evidence for understanding the internal dynamics of early Chinese civilization during the Xia–Shang transition.
The Protection and Inheritance of Anyang Yinxu Cultural Heritage from the Perspective of Xi Jinping Thought on Culture: A Study of Tourist Review Texts Based on ROST CM6.0
A study analyzing tourist reviews from platforms like Trip.com and Douyin using ROST CM6.0 reveals that while the public highly recognizes the cultural value of Anyang Yinxu, significant gaps exist in its preservation and transmission. These include imbalanced cultural dissemination, disconnection between protection efforts and visitor services, and reliance on traditional activation methods. The research suggests optimizing these areas to support high-quality development and heritage conservation, aligning with Xi Jinping Thought on Culture's principles of 'firming cultural confidence, embracing openness and inclusiveness, and innovating while adhering to core values.' This approach aims to strengthen the spiritual foundation of Chinese civilization.
Innovating Yinxu Bronze Patterns Through Cultural Semantics and Shape Grammar
A hybrid methodology combining semantic extension and shape grammar successfully innovates Yinxu bronze patterns while retaining traditional symbolism. This approach addresses symbolic complexity and form repetition by extracting cultural features and applying rule-based generative design, demonstrating adaptability to modern aesthetics without losing heritage significance. The study also highlights structural inertia in traditional pattern production, offering pathways for reactivation. A fuzzy evaluation model assessed the generated motifs based on innovation, expressiveness, and aesthetics, providing both theoretical and practical insights into the digital reinterpretation of cultural heritage motifs.
New evidence of correlation between craftsmanship and provenance in early Chinese protoporcelain and hard pottery
A new analysis reveals significant compositional overlaps between protoporcelain and hard pottery from Yin Xu and Wenjiashan, suggesting shared provenance. This finding implies potential exchange of ceramics between the Xiang River basin and the Central Plains during the Shang period. Researchers used energy-dispersive X-ray fluorescence spectroscopy and laser ablation inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry to analyze major and trace elements in 30 hard pottery samples from Wenjiashan and 29 from Yin Xu, comparing them with data from other Shang–Zhou period sites. Multivariate analysis highlighted regional differences in raw-material processing while confirming the correlation between craftsmanship and provenance.
Research on Cultural and Creative Design Strategies of Henan Yinxu from the Perspective of New Media Communication
A new design strategy system for Yinxu cultural and creative products, tailored to modern new media communication, has been developed. This approach addresses current shortcomings in the design and dissemination of Yinxu's archaeological heritage, leveraging theories from communication and design studies. By analyzing existing challenges through literature reviews, case studies, and comparative analyses, researchers propose innovative methods inspired by successful practices at Lanzhou Museum in Gansu Province. The strategy aims to enhance the creative transformation and global dissemination of Yinxu's cultural resources, offering a model for preserving and promoting China's traditional heritage in the digital age.
Research on User Experience of Digital Interactive Devices in Heritage Site Museums Based on SEM: A Case Study of the Yinxu Museum
Digital interactivity and playability significantly enhance user experience in heritage site museums, according to a study using the Yinxu Museum as a case. The research employed a mixed-methods approach—combining field observations, user testing, interviews, and questionnaires—to develop a structural equation model (SEM) that identified five key latent variables: interactivity, playability, immersion, educational value, and usability. Path analysis revealed that interactivity (β=0.212, p=0.020) and playability (β=0.205, p=0.022) had the strongest positive effects on user experience. The study proposes three optimization strategies—multi-layered interactive systems, restructured information architecture, and emotional interaction—to improve digital museum experiences. These findings offer actionable insights for leveraging technology to address user pain points in heritage site museums.
Revisiting Lineage: A Bioarchaeological Life Course Approach to Relatedness at the Late Shang Capital of Yinxu (ca. 1200-1050 BCE)
A groundbreaking bioarchaeological study of the Late Shang capital of Yinxu (ca. 1200–1050 BCE) challenges the long-held assumption that kinship in early Chinese society was rigidly patrilineal, instead revealing a dynamic system shaped by age and life stages. Analyzing 158 skeletal remains from Dasikong Cun—a non-elite neighborhood—alongside mortuary contexts, researchers found that burial practices evolved significantly over time, particularly among subadults, suggesting fluid forms of relatedness beyond formal lineage structures. The study applies life course theory for the first time at Yinxu, demonstrating how age-based seriations can track micro- and macro-scale changes in social organization. It proposes a new framework of 'yang' (care) and 'laiwang' (come-and-go) relatedness to characterize quotidian interactions, offering fresh insights into kinship theory, mortuary practices, and non-elite social dynamics during a pivotal period of Chinese civilization.
Ritual re-representation and the making of sociality: rethinking elite burials in the Late Shang Yinxu
Late Shang mortuary practices at Yin Xu were found to serve as 'ritual re-representation,' a form of bricolage that disassembled and reassembled tokens from ideal ritual ceremonies to re-enact the social existence of the dead. This approach, which emphasizes the spatial arrangement of burial contents, challenges traditional interpretations by highlighting how personhood and social relationships were framed through the treatment of the corpse and its surroundings. Artefacts placed in distinct spatial divisions expressed themes related to mortality, ceremonial conduct, moral transformation, feasting, music, dance, military authority, and mobility, while retainers were positioned based on their proximity to the tomb owner during life. Victims were placed outside the outer coffins, marking a boundary between the owner’s domain and those whose subjectivities were ritually denied. This symbolic structure embodied Late Shang notions of elite personhood, which prevailed from the Late Neolithic to the Late Bronze Age in northern China, playing a significant role in social stratification through a 'sacred' mode.
Examining the Impact of the Design of Cultural Products of the Yinxu in Anyang, China on Consumer Purchase Intention Based on the Theory of Perceived Value
Consumer purchase intentions for cultural products at China's Yinxu World Heritage Site are significantly influenced by four key value dimensions: functional, cognitive, emotional, and price. A study using focus group interviews and SPSS analysis revealed that multifunctional design, novelty, cultural experience, and price suitability are the strongest drivers of consumer behavior. The research suggests that integrating creative design, unique styling, and interactive experiences can enhance cultural product appeal while maintaining affordability. These findings provide actionable insights for marketing Yinxu's heritage products and offer a model for other UNESCO sites seeking to boost engagement through value-driven innovation.
Sacrifice humain sur le site de Yinxu : éléments d’identification des individus sacrifiés en contexte funéraire
A groundbreaking analysis of human remains from the UNESCO World Heritage Site Yinxu reveals new insights into ancient sacrificial practices during the Shang Dynasty. The study, published in Bulletins et Mémoires de La Société d’Anthropologie de Paris, identifies key skeletal markers that distinguish sacrificed individuals from other funerary contexts, shedding light on ritualistic behaviors and social hierarchies of the time. Researchers employed advanced osteological techniques to examine bone morphology, trauma patterns, and isotopic signatures, providing a rigorous framework for interpreting sacrificial victims' identities and roles within ceremonial rites. This work challenges conventional assumptions about Shang-era burial practices and offers a more nuanced understanding of human sacrifice in East Asian archaeology.
Shang royal mausoleum area and its surroundings at Yinxu in Anyang, Henan
Archaeological excavations at the Shang royal mausoleum area of Yinxu, Anyang, Henan, have uncovered two dry moats and over 470 sacrificial pits, revealing defensive structures used during the late Shang dynasty (Dayi Shang period). The findings, based on stratigraphic and material evidence from four excavated sites in 2021–2022, confirm the moats' role as boundary markers for the royal mausoleum. Additionally, nearby Western Zhou remains, dated to the early Western Zhou, were identified southwest of the mausoleum area, providing insights into the transition between these dynasties.
A Study on the contents of Zhanci in 『Yinxu Huayuanzhuang Dongdi Jiagu』
A notable distinction emerges between oracle bone inscriptions from the 'Huadong' collection and those of the 'Binzu' group, revealing unique predictive focuses. The study analyzed 58 oracle bone inscriptions containing Zhanci (fortune-telling) content, categorizing them into six themes: hunting, ancestral rites, reign, anxiety, weather, and royal activities. Unlike the 'Binzu' group, which prioritizes determining good or bad luck, the 'Huadong' inscriptions center on realizing Mingci (command phrases). The research also highlights a particular emphasis on hunting in 'Zi's predictions, especially during the third and fifth periods of the Huang group, suggesting a specialized interest. By examining conditional and negative predictions, the study clarifies how 'Zi' infers specific outcomes from Mingci.
A Study on the range and formal characteristics of ZhanCi in Yinxu Huadong Oracle bone inscriptions
A comparative analysis of 'Huadong oracle bone inscriptions' from the Shang dynasty's Yin Xu site reveals that these inscriptions, unlike royal counterparts, lack prophecies of good ('Ji') or bad ('Buji') fortune, instead featuring predominantly 'free-form prophecies.' The study identified 45 distinct oracle bones as 'ZhanCi,' confirming their range and formal characteristics. Notably, all 'Huadong' ZhanCi were found to be recorded with 'Mingci' on the same side of the oracle bone, a pattern not observed in royal inscriptions. This research, based on the 2003 publication 'Yinxu Huayuanzhuang Dongdi Jiagu,' provides new insights into the formal and functional distinctions between non-royal and royal oracle bone inscriptions from this period.
A Tough Hydrogel Adhesive for the Repair of Archeological Pottery
Scientists have developed a groundbreaking hydrogel adhesive that can repair archaeological pottery with remarkable speed and durability. This innovative material achieves robust adhesion (∼700 J m⁻²) within seconds, even under wet conditions—a significant advancement over traditional acrylic resins and cyanoacrylate adhesives, which require hours to cure and cannot adhere in moist environments. The hydrogel's toughness stems from its porous interface structure, while its wet adhesion is attributed to a hydrophilic precursor and free radical polymerization. Additionally, the adhesive demonstrates exceptional aging resistance, ensuring stable preservation for nearly 400 years. Field-tested on artifacts from Yin Xu (Anyang, ∼1300 BC) and Xia Jiao Shan (Neolithic, ∼4000 BC), this technology holds promise for broader applications beyond archaeology.
Bronze alloying recipes at Anyang during the Shang Dynasty
A detailed analysis of bronze alloying data from the Late Shang capital at Yin Xu reveals distinct alloying practices that varied by social status and object typology, as well as over time. During Yinxu Phase II, elite bronzes favored higher tin content, while lower elites and subsequent phases showed a binary pattern with lead-rich weapons. This suggests a shift in alloying techniques, likely involving the mixing of pure copper, tin, and lead, contrasting with later suggestions of pre-prepared binary alloys. The study hints that practices combining pure copper with impure lead may have emerged during the Shang Dynasty, though further research is needed to confirm this transition.
Identification of a source of nephrite from late Shang Yinxu by multispectral imaging
A groundbreaking study identifies the provenance of nephrite artifacts from the late Shang dynasty's capital, Yin Xu, using nondestructive multispectral imaging. The findings reveal that these yellow-green nephrites originate from Xiuyan in northeastern China, suggesting significant cultural connections between the Shang dynasty and distant regions over a thousand kilometers away. This research not only sheds light on ancient trade and cultural exchanges but also introduces a novel method for studying the circulation of ancient jade, offering new avenues for archaeological investigations.
Lead isotope ratio analysis of lead ingots and bronze wares unearthed from Yinxu
A new analysis of lead isotope ratios in bronze artifacts and lead ingots from Yin Xu reveals significant cultural exchanges between the Central Plains and the Jianghuai region during the late Shang Dynasty. The study found that the decrease in bronzes with highly radiogenic lead coincides with an increase in lead content in Yin Xu bronzes, suggesting a shift in lead sourcing practices. Researchers analyzed three lead ingots from Yin Xu and two lead vessels from Zhengxiaozhuang tomb, along with bronze artifacts, to trace these changes. The findings provide insights into the metallurgical advancements and trade dynamics of the period.
The excavation of M793 at Liujiazhuang North in Yinxu, Anyang, Henan
Excavation of tomb M793 at Liujiazhuang North, Yinxu, reveals it as a significant burial site for the Yajiang or Jiang clan during the late stage of Yinxu Phase II. Bronze artifacts with inscriptions linking the area to the Yajiang clan and the tomb's structure suggest the occupant was a minor leader rather than the main clan chief. The discovery provides critical evidence confirming Liujiazhuang North as an important settlement for this clan, offering new insights into the social hierarchy and spatial distribution of the Jiang people during the late Shang Dynasty.
A Study on Yinxu(殷墟), the Ancient Settlement of Chinese City: Focused on its Religious Character
Archaeological excavations at Xiaotun Village, Anyang City, Henan Province, have confirmed the site as Yinxu (殷墟), the late Shang Dynasty capital. The study reveals that Yinxu was a religious city, with its palace and ancestral temple district serving as both political and religious spaces. Excavated artifacts, including large architectural foundations, ritual pits, oracle bones, and bronze vessels, provide concrete evidence of divination and sacrificial rituals performed here. The research suggests that the Shang Dynasty operated under an undifferentiated political-religious framework, where the palace-temple complex functioned as a multifacetional space for governance, religion, and daily life, housing both living individuals and ancestors.
Review of: Adam C. Schwartz. The Oracle Bone Inscriptions from Huayuanzhuang East. Boston/Berlin: Walter de Gruyter Inc., 2019. Divinatory Inscriptions from the Eastern Sector of Huayuanzhuang in Yinxu
A comprehensive analysis of divinatory inscriptions on oracle bones from the Eastern Sector of Huayuanzhuang in Yinxu reveals intricate details about the daily activities, rituals, and social structure of the Shang elite during the 13th–12th centuries BC. Unlike previous studies focusing on the Shang ruler, this research highlights a lesser-known figure, Zi, presumed to be the son of the wang, as the primary client for these divinations. By meticulously translating and interpreting over 500 inscriptions, Adam C. Schwartz offers unprecedented insights into the hierarchical relationships, ceremonial practices, and cultural norms of the Shang dynasty's ruling class. This work not only expands our understanding of ancient Chinese epigraphy but also provides a nuanced portrait of the political and social dynamics within one of China's earliest dynasties.
Water Conservancy System and Urban Layout of Yinxu, the Capital City of Shang: A GIS Approach
A quantitative analysis of Yinxu, the late Shang Dynasty capital, reveals that its water conservancy system—built during the Second Phase to adapt to climate change and urban expansion—profoundly shaped the city's layout. Using GIS hydrology and density analysis, researchers found that artificial channels altered surface runoff, harnessed scarce local water resources, and clustered dwellings and workshops around abundant water sources. Unlike other Bronze Age capitals, Yinxu's system also functioned as a wall-less defense mechanism, partitioning the 'central zone' with large-scale facilities alongside the Huan River.
A Study on the ZhanCi of the He group in YinXu Oracle bone inscriptions
A distinctive pattern emerges in the ZhanCi (divination texts) of the He group within Yin Xu's oracle bone inscriptions. Unlike other groups, these divinations omit the opening phrase 'Wang Zhan Yue' and are recorded in a highly simplified form, featuring only positive outcomes ('Ji', 'Da Ji', 'Yin Ji'). The study analyzed 600 oracle bone fragments from the 'Jia gu wen he ji' collection, focusing on formal and content-based aspects. It found that He group divinations differ significantly from those of the Bin and Huang groups, particularly in their brevity and uniformity. Divination records were categorized into five types: sacrificial rites, hunting expeditions, meteorology, military affairs, and agriculture, with notable differences in recording patterns compared to other groups.
Decapitated Heads as Elite Visual Culture in Late Shang China
A dramatic increase in decapitation during the Late Shang dynasty (c.1250–1050 BCE) at Yinxu, Henan Province, China, led to the ritual transformation of human heads into elite objects. This study reveals that while decapitation was a documented practice, no clear evidence of its execution exists at Yinxu, despite numerous depictions in other cultures. Using archaeological data from sacrificial contexts and material culture uncovered over 90 years, the research argues that these remains were ritually managed to neutralize their post-mortem agency while elevating their status among the elite. This finding contributes to global comparative studies on the materiality of the human head, offering insights into how societies handle and symbolize such remains.
The excavation of a cache of lead ingots in Liujiazhuang Locus North of Yinxu, Anyang, Henan
A significant discovery of 293 lead ingots, weighing a total of 3404 kg, was unearthed in August 2015 from an earthen cache pit at the Yinxu site in Anyang, Henan. The ingots, shaped like turtle shells with dimensions ranging from 10 cm to 70 cm, provide crucial insights into the bronze-casting industry of the Shang dynasty. This excavation sheds light on the scale, technology, organization, and management of metallurgical practices during this period. The findings are pivotal for understanding the advanced industrial capabilities and resource management strategies employed in ancient China.
A Study on the ZhanCi of the Huang group in YinXu Oracle bone inscriptions
Research on the ZhanCi (prophecies) of the Huang group in Yin Xu Oracle bone inscriptions reveals distinct characteristics compared to other groups. Unlike the BinZu, which records both positive and negative prophecies, the Huang group exclusively documents favorable outcomes such as 'Ji' (吉), 'DaJi' (大吉), and 'YinJi' (引吉). This study also identifies specific content patterns in Huang group ZhanCi, primarily focusing on Buxun (divination for the next ten days) and Tianlie (hunting), with lesser occurrences in military affairs, sacrifices, and agriculture. The analysis builds upon prior research of other groups like ChuZu, HeZu, and WumingZu, highlighting the rarity of 'Wang zhan yue' (King prophesies) records. The findings provide insights into the evolution and thematic focus of oracle bone inscriptions during this period.
On the source “composition” of the bronze vessels in the burials of the Yinxu site
Bronze vessels from burials at the Yinxu site exhibit distinct 'source compositions,' revealing two primary types: single-sourced and multiple-sourced. This discovery challenges traditional analyses focused on 'assemblages' by emphasizing the origin, distribution, and social context of bronzes. The study analyzed key burials, including M303 at Dasikong, M1713 in the West Zone, Fu Hao's tomb, and M1046 at Liujiazhuang Locus North, demonstrating that multiple-sourced compositions vary based on social backgrounds and relationships among burial occupants. This approach offers new insights into the social dynamics and craftsmanship of Bronze Age societies.
A Study on the Contents of Bin group’s ZhanCi in YinXu Oracle bone inscriptions
A study of Yin Xu's Bin group ZhanCi reveals that these divination interpretations primarily focused on six key subjects: weather, childbirth, military affairs, sacrifices, diseases, and disasters. Notably, only about 700 out of nearly 20,000 oracle bone fragments contained ZhanCi, highlighting its selective use for significant matters, such as royal family security and state affairs. The analysis also showed that ZhanCi often recorded judgments on 'selection' and 'good or ill luck,' serving to clarify the intended queries. Researchers examined Bin group's oracle bone inscriptions, categorizing their contents and functions to provide insights into early divination practices.
A study on the integrated exhibition of sense of place directing of museums as an origin of Chinese writing civilization - focus on Hebei province museum, Yinxu museum and writing museum -
Museums rooted in historical excavation sites, such as those in Hebei Province, China, can enhance visitor engagement and information retention by integrating the 'sense of place'—a concept emphasizing authenticity, historicity, and regional identity. Research demonstrates that exhibits designed around these principles, rather than relying solely on advanced multimedia, foster deeper spatial experiences. Two distinct exhibition strategies emerged: one with a fluid, thematic narrative tied to physical spaces (e.g., Yinxu Museum) and another with a linear, chronological structure emphasizing symbolic historical representation (e.g., Writing Museum). These findings suggest that aligning exhibitions with the inherent qualities of a site—its past temporal context and material authenticity—can significantly improve how visitors perceive and absorb cultural information. This insight offers a framework for developing systematic guidelines to design future regional museums effectively.
Case Studies in Large-Scale Archaeological Site Conservation and Management in China: The Liangzhu, Yin Xu, and Han Yangling Sites
China's large-scale archaeological site conservation projects, including those at Yin Xu, demonstrate adaptive governance strategies to address urbanization and natural disaster threats while balancing social, economic, and ecological needs. The study identifies how government agencies restructure existing mechanisms to meet these challenges, highlighting the importance of stakeholder responsibility in local development contexts. Through a combination of literature review and field research, the authors analyze case studies such as Liangzhu, Yin Xu, and Han Yangling to provide insights into effective conservation practices for UNESCO World Heritage Sites.
The excavation of burial M89 at Tiesan Road at the Yinxu Site in Anyang, Henan
A significant archaeological discovery at the UNESCO World Heritage Site Yin Xu, located in Anyang, Henan, has shed light on the craft production of the Shang Dynasty. The excavation of burial M89, dating to Phase II of the Yinxu Period, revealed a high-status individual likely involved in jade production and management. This is the first such burial identified at the site, providing crucial insights into the organization and specialization of jade workshops during this period. The grave goods included a bronze gu-goblet with an inscribed jade scepter, indicating the occupant's role as a petty aristocrat overseeing jade craftsmanship. Additionally, the presence of semi-finished jade products, castoffs, and tools suggests localized jade workshops nearby.
Osteoarthritis, labour division, and occupational specialization of the Late Shang China - insights from Yinxu (ca. 1250 - 1046 B.C.)
A study of skeletal remains from Yin Xu, the Late Shang dynasty capital (ca. 1250–1046 B.C.), reveals distinct patterns of osteoarthritis that suggest gendered labor division and occupational specialization. Analysis of 167 skeletons from two sites showed males had significantly higher upper-body osteoarthritis, likely due to repetitive heavy lifting—a pattern more pronounced in Xiaomintun, where bronze-casting artifacts were abundant. This implies men engaged in physically demanding tasks, while higher osteoarthritis in Xiaomintun females hints at their possible involvement in bronze-casting as a family occupation. The findings support the existence of occupation-oriented neighborhoods and gendered labor roles in ancient urban China.
The bone workshop site of Yinxu Period at Tiesan Road in Anyang, Henan
Excavations at the Yinxu Period bone workshop site in Anyang, Henan, revealed a significant archaeological site spanning approximately 1.76 hectares, operational from Phase II to late Phase IV of the Yinxu Period. The discovery included extensive remains such as roads, house foundations, ash pits, and burials, alongside a vast array of artifacts, predominantly bone materials. This wealth of findings provides crucial insights into late Shang Dynasty handicraft production, animal husbandry economics, and the utilization and supply of animal resources. Conducted over three excavation terms from 2002 to 2008, the study offers substantial data for understanding the social and economic structures of the period.
The quantitative genetic analysis of craniometric phenotype of Yinxu population, Anyang
A quantitative genetic analysis of craniometric data from Yin Xu, the capital of the late Shang Dynasty (3250–2996 BP), reveals significant population structure and gene flow patterns in northern China during the Bronze Age. The study found that while the ZXM group (medium and small tombs) showed close genetic ties to local Neolithic populations with frequent gene exchange along the Yellow River, the JSK group (sacrifice pits) exhibited higher craniofacial variation, indicating diverse origins including Inner Mongolia-Great Wall and Ganqing regions. No evidence of European or Oceanian gene flow was detected. The research suggests that geographic barriers likely limited gene exchange during this period, challenging the reliability of racial classification in tracing external genetic influences.
Investigating the tool marks on oracle bones inscriptions from the Yinxu site (ca., 1319–1046 BC), Henan province, China
A study of oracle bone inscriptions from the Yinxu site, dating to the late Shang dynasty (ca. 1319–1046 BC), reveals two distinct carving techniques used by ancient scribes: direct carving and 'outlining design.' The latter involved engraving a draft outline before refining it into formal characters, likely as a method to minimize errors. Microscopic analysis of tool marks on tortoise shell surfaces shows that strokes were engraved from top to bottom with pointed tools, ruling out the use of rotary wheel-cutting tools due to the ruggedness of groove bottoms and neatness of edges. The findings suggest that scribes employed sharp, precise instruments, possibly metal, for engraving, providing new insights into the craftsmanship and techniques of early Chinese writing systems.
Osteoarchaeological Studies of Human Systemic Stress of Early Urbanization in Late Shang at Anyang, China
Extensive systemic stress exposure was documented among non-elite populations during the Late Shang Dynasty (ca. 1250–1046 B.C.) at Yin Xu, suggesting early urbanization exacerbated health disparities and contributed to societal collapse. Analysis of skeletal remains from two burial contexts—lineage cemeteries and refuse pits—revealed high frequencies of enamel hypoplasia (80.9%), cribra orbitalia (30.3%), and osteoperiostitis (40.0% in adults), indicating severe childhood stress, frailty, and adult morbidity. Notably, females from refuse pits showed significantly elevated levels of cribra orbitalia and osteoperiostitis, potentially reflecting gender inequality compounding urbanization-related stressors. The study employed osteological markers to assess physiological disturbances linked to urban crowding, sanitation decline, and resource scarcity, providing evidence that social stratification intensified these burdens.
The Carving Technology of the Handle-Shaped Artefacts from Yinxu (c .1300-1046 bc ) in China
A groundbreaking analysis of handle-shaped jade artefacts from Yinxu (c.1300–1046 BCE) reveals that these objects were likely crafted through a four-step process—rough shape cutting, edge reforming, handle making, and single-side polishing—contradicting earlier assumptions about their manufacturing techniques. The study, employing digital microscopy, Raman spectroscopy, and scanning electron microscopy, also challenges the notion that these artefacts served as hairpins or handles, instead suggesting they were used as sacrificial offerings during the Shang Dynasty period in China. This finding provides new insights into the functional and ritual significance of jade objects from this era.
The excavation of the Wangyukou Locus South at Yinxu Site in Anyang City, Henan in 2009
Excavations at the Wangyukou Locus South in Yin Xu, a UNESCO World Heritage Site and a key Shang Dynasty archaeological site in Anyang, Henan, revealed significant insights into the social structure of diviner groups during this period. Two tombs, M103 and M94, were identified as part of a potential family cemetery linked to a named diviner from oracle bone inscriptions. These tombs, dating to Phases II and III respectively, exhibited distinct characteristics that provide rare evidence for studying the hierarchical positions of diviners and their evolution over time. The excavation, conducted by the Anyang Archaeological Team between March and December 2009, uncovered roads, house foundations, wells, ash pits, sacrificial pits, and burials, offering a comprehensive view of Shang Dynasty life and ritual practices.
Urban landscapes: transforming spaces and reshaping communities
Yin Xu offers unique insights into early Bronze Age urbanism and literacy in China. Unlike its predecessors, such as Anyang, Yin Xu lacked city walls and clearly demarcated boundaries, with its royal precinct spanning 70 hectares and featuring over 100 building foundations. Most significantly, the site has yielded a substantial corpus of inscribed divination bones, providing rare glimpses into everyday writing from this period. This discovery challenges previous assumptions about the nature and extent of literacy in ancient Chinese urban centers, highlighting the interplay between urbanization and the transmission of written language over millennia.
Animal, Human, God: Pathways of Shang Animality and Divinity
A groundbreaking analysis of the Shang dynasty's cultural practices reveals intricate connections between animals, humans, and deities at the UNESCO World Heritage Site Yin Xu. The study highlights how chariots, dogs, and trophy deer skulls were integral to ritualistic and social hierarchies, serving as symbols of power and spiritual significance. Through meticulous examination of archaeological artifacts—including bronze bells, inscribed oracle bones, and monumental contexts such as slab burials—the research reconstructs the afterlife practices and divinity pathways of the Shang elite, particularly focusing on figures like Fu Hao. The approach combines spatial analysis of excavated sites with iconographic studies, offering a nuanced understanding of animality and divinity in ancient Chinese society.
Dynamic Monitoring of Yin Xu Site by Remote Sensing
Remote sensing reveals that the protection planning system for Yin Xu, China's 3,300-year-old Shang Dynasty capital, has been effective but is threatened by rapid urban expansion. The study used aerial photo interpretations and field-validated classifications to monitor changes in settlements, riverways, roads, factories, and green areas from 1972 to 2010. While the heritage site's protection efforts have largely succeeded, adjacent construction has negatively impacted its preservation.
The excavation at Liujiazhuang Locus North at Yinxu Site in Anyang City, Henan in 2010–2011
Excavations at the Liujiazhuang Locus North of the Yinxu Site, a UNESCO World Heritage Site in Anyang, China, uncovered significant remnants from the Yinxu Period (1600–1046 BCE), including pottery kilns, house foundations, wells, ash pits, sacrificial pits, and burials. Notably, the discovery of a rammed-earth house foundation (F79) represents the first of its kind at the site, providing new insights into Yinxu Period architecture. The excavation also revealed a round bronze artifact, suggesting the area may have been part of a pottery-making workshop. Conducted between 2010 and 2011 by the Anyang Archaeological Team, this study employed systematic excavation techniques to map the distribution of vestiges along roads, offering valuable data on Yinxu Period urban planning and craftsmanship.
The excavation of the pottery workshop site at Liujiazhuang Locus North of Yinxu in Anyang City, Henan
Excavations at the Liujiazhuang Locus North of Yinxu uncovered 24 Shang Dynasty pottery kilns with uniform structures, revealing insights into ancient ceramic production techniques. These kilns featured distinct upper and lower sections, including stacking chambers, flues, fuel entrances, fireboxes, and fire tunnels, some accompanied by operation pits. The discovery of pottery-making tools like paddles and anvils, along with fine clay gray pottery wares—primarily food containers—sheds light on the specialized organization and craftsmanship of Shang Dynasty ceramic workshops. The findings were recovered from sidewalks in Anyang City, Henan, during excavations in 2008 and 2010.
The relationship between the Shang and the ethnic groups on the Northern Frontiers as reflected in the northern-style bronzes unearthed in Yinxu Site
Archaeological analysis reveals that northern-style bronzes found at the Yinxu Site, particularly from the late stages of Phase I and II during the reigns of Kings Wu Ding and Zu Jia, signify frequent warfare between the Shang Dynasty and ethnic groups inhabiting the Northern Frontier Zone. This study suggests that these ethnic groups, such as the Qiong Fang, Tu Fang, or Fang Fang, primarily resided in mountainous regions spanning western Shanxi, northeastern Shaanxi, and northern Hebei Provinces. By examining oracle bone inscriptions and the characteristics of frontier bronzes, researchers propose that military conflict was the primary form of interaction between the Shang and these northern groups, highlighting its significance for establishing exchange networks with the Eurasian Steppe.
The consumption, utilization and supply of sheep and goats at the late Shang Dynasty capital: a zooarchaeological study on the sheep and goat remains unearthed in the Yinxu area
A zooarchaeological study of sheep and goat remains from the late Shang Dynasty capital at Yin Xu reveals that these animals were primarily juvenile, indicating specialized husbandry for meat production. The analysis suggests that most sheep and goats consumed by residents were sourced externally, while those used in burial sacrifices also reflected a preference for younger individuals, mirroring funeral rituals that 'served the dead as they were alive.' By examining morphological identifications, NISP (Number of Identified Specimens), MNI (Minimum Number of Individuals), and ubiquities, researchers quantified mutton's dietary significance and the ratio between sheep and goats, providing insights into late Shang Dynasty subsistence practices and ritual behaviors.
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