Publications
How does AI perform as a tour guide? A user-based assessment through the ChatGPT tour guide performance model at Gordion
AI, particularly ChatGPT, demonstrates significant potential as a tour guide at UNESCO World Heritage Sites like Gordion, offering cost-effective and practical solutions for individual travelers. However, its effectiveness is hindered by external factors such as limited spatial mobility and internet inaccessibility. The study identifies key competencies of AI in this role, including image and voice assistant features, while also highlighting its shortcomings. By employing the Task-Technology Fit Theory and Technology Acceptance Model, researchers conducted an experiment with 45 participants to assess ChatGPT's performance, contributing novel insights into the dynamics shaping AI's tour guide capabilities.
Fieldwork at Phrygian Gordion, 2016–2023
Recent fieldwork at Gordion, Türkiye, has uncovered significant findings that challenge long-standing assumptions about the site's history. The South Gate, discovered on the Citadel Mound, was found to be in use for over 1,200 years, from the ninth century BCE to the fourth century CE, accompanied by a nearly 100-meter-long approach road. Excavations in the Mosaic Building Complex revealed that it was constructed around 575 BCE, predating its initial estimation by a century and a half, and likely housed the Gordian Knot cut by Alexander the Great in 333 BCE. The complex also yielded a stone omphalos and two gilded ivory sphinxes, possibly part of a throne. Additionally, Tumulus 52 contained over 3,000 Baltic amber beads, suggesting a connection to Midas' family. Gordion was inscribed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 2023.
The Citadel of Gordion and the Dating of the Midas Monument at Midas City
A re-evaluation of the Midas Monument at Midas City challenges its previously proposed early sixth-century BCE dating, instead supporting a late eighth-century BCE origin. The study argues that the monument's architectural features align with Phrygian rather than Lydian styles, reinforcing its association with King Midas' reign during the height of Phrygian power in central Anatolia. This conclusion is based on detailed analysis of stylistic and contextual evidence, including comparisons with contemporary Phrygian structures at Gordion. The research provides new insights into the chronological framework of Iron Age Phrygia and the political dynamics of the region during this period.
Ancient Gordion
Neutron Activation Analysis (NAA) reveals that Phrygian ceramics from Gordion, modern Yassıhöyük, were produced in diverse workshops across a wide area rather than centralized at the site. This challenges the long-held view of a powerful, unified Phrygian state and suggests a decentralized sociopolitical structure with elite competition and incipient group identity formation, particularly during public feasts. The study synthesizes data from decades of excavations, including previously unpublished results, to trace ceramic provenance and exchange patterns across Anatolia, offering new insights into Iron Age group dynamics and power practices.
A New Phrygian Inscription from Gordion: A Pergamene Contingent in Phrygia in the early Reign of Antiochus I
A newly discovered Phrygian inscription from Gordion, dating to the early reign of Antiochus I, marks the first known mention of the city by name. The slab, part of a funerary monument linked to Parsaparnas—a Persian nobleman from Pergamon—reveals insights into a Pergamene military contingent stationed in Phrygia under Antiochus' rule. The study meticulously analyzes the inscription's epigraphical features, philological context, and historical significance, offering a rare glimpse into Hellenistic-period dynamics at Gordion. Key findings include the identification of Parsaparnas as a high-ranking figure and the association of the monument with his military role, providing evidence for Antiochus I's administrative and strategic interests in the region.
Ancient Chromophores and Auxiliaries: Phrygian Colorants from Tumulus MM at Gordion, Turkey, ca 740 BCE
A groundbreaking analysis of Phrygian textiles from Tumulus MM at Gordion, Turkey (ca 740 BCE), reveals the sophisticated use of organic and inorganic colorants. Using advanced techniques like DART-MS, researchers identified indigo-related compounds, alizarin, purpurin, xanthopurpurin, lucidin, and other madder derivatives, confirming the Phrygians' mastery in dyeing. The study also detected goethite (yellow ochre) as a chromophore, with preliminary evidence suggesting a controlled redox reaction may have been used. This research sheds light on ancient textile production techniques and the versatility of Phrygian colorists, comparable to Anatolian pile carpets.
Medieval Glazed Ceramics From Gordion
A high potential for Gordion and its surrounding region to have been key producers of glazed ceramics during the Beylikler period (13th–14th centuries) is supported by stylistic similarities with pottery from Amorium, Karacahisar Castle, Anaia, Pergamon, and Ephesos. The study groups medieval glazed ceramics from Gordion’s South Trench, Area 4, and Operation 54 based on form and decorative features rather than excavation context, revealing consistent manufacturing traditions within each group. These findings help bridge a chronological gap in settlement continuity at Gordion post-Geç Antik Dönem while providing insights into the socioeconomic identity of its medieval inhabitants through ceramic production, distribution, and use.
Observations on the language of the newly discovered Phrygian inscription from Gordion (G-12)
A newly discovered Phrygian inscription from Gordion, dated to 2021, offers unprecedented insights into the language and sociolinguistic context of ancient Mysia. The text, analyzed through detailed philological and linguistic scrutiny, reveals connections to the region around Pergamon, shedding light on the ethnolinguistic dynamics of the Phrygian civilization. The study employs a comprehensive approach, examining the inscription's structure, vocabulary, and contextual significance to reconstruct its historical and cultural background. This finding challenges existing assumptions about the distribution and evolution of Phrygian language, providing a critical piece in the puzzle of ancient Anatolian linguistics.
Midas, Matar, and Homer at Gordion and Midas City
A new reconstruction of Middle Phrygian Gordion and analysis of the Midas Monument's inscriptions reveal that Midas's kingship was deeply intertwined with political power, religious devotion to the goddess Matar, and cultural references to Troy and Homer. The study suggests that public buildings in Gordion's citadel may have served as sites for elite feasting, potentially linking Phrygian royalty to Homeric narratives. By examining architectural remains and inscriptions, researchers propose a nuanced understanding of Midas's rule and the significance of his capital city during the late 8th century B.C.
Object-based modelling and accuracy assessment of Gordion tumuli using very high-resolution stereo satellite images
Very high-resolution (VHR) stereo satellite images can detect sub-metre level physical changes on Gordion tumuli, as demonstrated by this study. Using WorldView-3 and KOMPSAT-3 data, researchers generated point cloud datasets with vertical accuracies of 0.16 m and 0.53 m root mean square error (RMSE), respectively. Digital surface models (DSMs) derived from these images were also compared to reference DSMs from Unmanned Aerial System (UAS) images, yielding average RMSE values of 0.28 m for WorldView-3 and 0.57 m for KOMPSAT-3. These findings highlight the potential of VHR stereo satellite imagery for monitoring and analyzing physical changes on archaeological sites with high precision.
A Mid-6th-Century b.c.e. Deposit from Gordion in Central Anatolia: Evidence for Feasting and the Persian Destruction
A mid-6th-century b.c.e. deposit from Gordion, Central Anatolia, provides unprecedented evidence of life just before the Achaemenid Persian attack on the city around 540 b.c.e. The deposit, formed during cleanup efforts following the destruction, offers a chronologically specific snapshot of locally produced pottery and Greek imports, revealing insights into feasting practices and cultural influences. Traditional Phrygian black-polished ware was primarily used for drinking, while Lydian influence is evident in burnished gray stemmed vessels, though their use differed from that in Sardis. The deposit also includes a variety of bowls, large jars, and jugs, along with a puzzling terracotta object possibly linked to household cult practices. This study enhances our understanding of Gordion's inhabitants' behaviors and concerns during this pivotal period.
Dating Gordion: the Timing and Tempo of Late Bronze and Early Iron Age Political Transformation
A major conflagration in the late 9th century BCE at Gordion, a UNESCO World Heritage Site and pivotal archaeological site in central Anatolia, marks a significant political transformation from Hittite hegemony to the rise of the Phrygian polity. This study presents fifteen new radiocarbon dates that revise the chronology of this transition, challenging previous assumptions about the timing of cultural shifts. The research employs advanced absolute dating techniques to establish a precise framework for understanding the collapse of the Hittite Empire and the subsequent emergence of Phrygia as a dominant political force in Anatolia from the 9th to 7th centuries BCE. These findings reshape our perspective on the Late Bronze Age/Early Iron Age transition, highlighting Gordion's precocious development into an early Phrygian capital.
The collapse of empire at Gordion in the transition from the Achaemenid to the Hellenistic world
Gordion, once a thriving capital of Phrygia under the Achaemenid Persian Empire (ca 550–333 BC), experienced profound socio-economic and cultural shifts following Alexander's conquest. The collapse of the Achaemenid administrative infrastructure led to a significant population decline, dramatic changes in architectural organization, and new trade and cultural interactions. Recent archaeological evaluations of Gordion’s architecture, finds, and landscape use reveal how the site adapted to these historical upheavals during the transition from the Achaemenid to the Hellenistic period.
Unfolding a Geometric Textile from 9th-Century Gordion
A rare, intricately woven textile from 9th-century Gordion, preserved by a fire around 800 B.C., reveals the sophistication of Early Phrygian design and craftsmanship. This geometric textile, discovered in Megaron 3, combines slit-tapestry weaving with soumak wrapping, showcasing motifs that align with other Phrygian artifacts like painted pottery and inlaid furniture. The reconstruction highlights weaving as a key element of the era's shared aesthetic language (koine), offering new insights into Anatolian textile traditions during the Early Iron Age.
Archaeology and Conservation of the Middle Phrygian Gate Complex at Gordion, Turkey
A 2016 conservation project at Gordion, Turkey, revealed sophisticated Middle Phrygian (ca. 800–700 b.c.e.) construction techniques that enhanced stability of a rubble platform beneath the Gate Complex. The study found that internal casemate-like walls and strategically placed juniper logs supported the rubble fill, while water-soluble gypsum contributed to its eventual collapse in antiquity. Stabilization efforts not only preserved these features but also improved visitor accessibility, highlighting the Early Phrygian gateway as a key access point to the megarons on the Citadel Mound.
Agricultural Sustainability and Environmental Change at Ancient Gordion
Ancient Gordion offers a unique perspective on agricultural sustainability and environmental change through its diachronic record. The study reveals that different political and economic systems implemented over time at Gordion resulted in varied agricultural practices with divergent environmental impacts. Some regimes fostered sustainable agriculture, while others led to significant environmental alteration. This comprehensive analysis of 220 botanical samples from the 1993-2002 excavations, combined with paleoenvironmental data, reconstructs agricultural decision-making processes and their social contexts. The research provides a valuable dataset for regional synthesis in the Near East and introduces innovative methods to study the relationship between social and environmental change globally.
From Gabii and Gordion to Eretria and Methone: the Rise of the Greek Alphabet
Recent findings from Methone, including three long inscriptions likely written in Eretrian script, provide crucial evidence for the diffusion of literacy and the evolution of the Greek alphabet. These inscriptions challenge traditional views by suggesting that the alphabet's development involved three distinct phases—Cretan, Euboean, Roman, and Ionian—contradicting earlier assumptions about its Phoenician origins. The discovery also supports a revised chronology for the Middle and Late Geometric periods, resolving inconsistencies in previous theories. Additionally, the inscriptions indicate that the Euboean script was sophisticated enough to record complex texts, such as epic poetry, by this stage. This study bridges archaeological evidence with linguistic history, offering new insights into the spread of literacy across the Mediterranean.
Rural Agricultural Economies and Military Provisioning at Roman Gordion (Central Turkey)
Roman Gordion, the only excavated rural military settlement in a pacified Roman territory, reveals a nuanced agricultural economy where the garrison adapted to local farming while maintaining traditional meat preferences. Archaeobotanical and zooarchaeological analyses show economic interdependence with local farmers, self-sufficiency in pork and chicken production, and complex relationships with autonomous sheep and goat herders. The Roman military's control was limited to specific sectors like cereal farming, leaving sheep and goat herding systems unchanged for market or taxation purposes. A new pig husbandry system emerged, distinguishing Gordion from contemporary non-military settlements.
Conserving the tomb chamber complex in the Midas Mound at Gordion in Turkey
The Midas Tomb chamber complex at Gordion, Turkey, stands as the earliest known standing wooden building globally. This unique timber structure, measuring 5.15 m by 6.20 m—nearly twice the size of the second-largest excavated wooden tomb at Gordion—relies on corner joinery and lateral earth pressure for stability. To prevent structural damage, archaeologists implemented a stabilization strategy involving three wooden posts to support the beams, addressing the challenge of removing lateral earth pressure without compromising the structure's integrity. This conservation effort, analyzed from a structural engineering perspective, highlights innovative approaches to preserving ancient timber architecture while maintaining its historical significance.
Fieldwork at Phrygian Gordion, 2013–2015
Recent fieldwork at Gordion, Turkey, uncovered substantial Iron Age fortifications and clarified the city's urban layout. Excavations on the Citadel Mound revealed a massive Early Phrygian glacis (ninth century B.C.E.) with a stepped terrace wall over 2.5 meters high, supporting a fortified wall nearly 3 meters wide. Additional Middle and Late Phrygian fortifications were also discovered, along with a new citadel gateway. Remote sensing further mapped Gordion's residential districts—Lower Town and Outer Town—revealing defensive structures like fortification walls and ditches, as well as a large western fort. Conservation efforts preserved notable features, including the Terrace Building Complex, a pebble mosaic floor from Megaron 2, and the Early Phrygian Gate Complex, one of the best-preserved in Iron Age Asia Minor.
Tortoise-Shell Lyres from Phrygian Gordion
A discovery of tortoise-shell lyres at Gordion, a UNESCO World Heritage Site in Turkey, challenges the long-held belief that stringed instruments were absent from Phrygian music. These lyres, dating to the first quarter of the seventh century BCE, are among the earliest known outside the Greek world and provide evidence of a more diverse musical culture in Anatolia. Analysis of worked edges, scrape marks, and drill holes reveals intricate construction techniques and zoomorphic aesthetics. The find, unearthed in an abandonment deposit beneath Tumulus E, sheds light on Phrygian soundscape, complementing the known use of aulos and cymbals. This research reconstructs the musical accompaniment to daily life, including weaving, dining, and religious rituals, offering new insights into the region's cultural heritage.
From Gabii and Gordion to Eretria and Methone: The Rise of the Greek Alphabet
Recent discoveries from Methone, including three long inscriptions likely written in Eretrian script, provide crucial evidence for the diffusion of literacy and the evolution of the Greek alphabet. These findings challenge the traditional understanding that the Greek alphabet evolved directly from Phoenician scripts, suggesting instead a more complex prehistory with at least three distinct phases: Cretan, Euboean, and Ionian. The study proposes raising the chronology of the Middle and Late Geometric periods to reconcile this evidence. Additionally, the inscriptions indicate that Euboean script was already sophisticated enough to record complex texts like epic poetry by this time. This research sheds new light on the origins and spread of alphabetic writing in the Mediterranean world.
Modeling Resilience and Sustainability in Ancient Agricultural Systems
Ancient agricultural systems can provide critical insights into the adoption of unsustainable practices and their environmental consequences, which remain poorly understood today. A study focusing on Gordion, a UNESCO World Heritage Site in central Turkey, reveals that mismatches between social and ecological processes—spatially, temporally, and organizationally—often trigger local environmental degradation. Extralocal economic pressures further drive the shift toward unsustainable land-use practices. By integrating environmental archaeology with resilience thinking, this research offers a novel framework to explain regional patterns of agricultural change and environmental decline in the past.
Scales of impact: Settlement history and landscape change in the Gordion Region, central Anatolia
Research at Gordion, Turkey, reveals that early agriculture during the Chalcolithic period caused rapid environmental degradation, with erosion rates peaking within a millennium of settlement. Surprisingly, the highest degradation occurred during the Early Bronze Age despite lower settlement density, suggesting complex interactions between land use and sociopolitical changes. By the Iron Age, erosion rates declined to one-third their earlier peak, even as settlement intensity increased, indicating that soil vulnerability decreased over time. The study combines archaeological survey data with sediment core analysis to link settlement patterns to landscape disruption, offering insights into how human activities reshape ecosystems.
The octagonal gemstones from Gordion: observations and interpretations
A rare octagonal gemstone form, previously understudied, emerges as significant in late Roman central Anatolia. Excavations at Gordion's cemeteries revealed three such gems (1st–4th century AD), alongside 182 others from a new corpus of 185 examples, suggesting local production and symbolic importance for military and early Christian communities. The study proposes that the shape held numeric/symbolic meaning, possibly linked to workshops in Ancyra or Caesarea, supported by analyses of gem type, dimensions, provenance, dating, and iconography.
A Conservation Management Plan for Gordion and its Environs
A Conservation Management Plan for Gordion, a UNESCO World Heritage Site in Turkey, reveals significant risks to its archaeological integrity, particularly from deep ploughing by local farmers. This multidisciplinary effort, involving the University of Pennsylvania and Middle East Technical University, surveyed 140 km² around Gordion, including villages, historic sites, settlement mounds (höyüks), and burial mounds (tumuli). The study documented public and private buildings using standardized forms and photographs, reassessing the site's values and proposing an action plan to mitigate damage. A key focus was raising awareness among local stakeholders about the destructive impact of agricultural practices on tumuli, ensuring long-term preservation.
Pontic Inhabitants at Gordion? Pots, People, and Plans of Houses at Middle Phrygian through Early Hellenistic Gordion (Chapter 15)
A significant discovery at Gordion, the ancient capital of Phrygia, suggests the presence of Pontic inhabitants during the Middle Phrygian through Early Hellenistic periods. This insight is derived from an analysis of pottery styles and house plans, revealing cultural influences that challenge previous assumptions about the site's demographic composition. The study employs a comparative approach, examining architectural features and ceramic artifacts to trace potential migrations or interactions between the Pontic region and Gordion. Such findings contribute to a deeper understanding of the dynamic social and cultural landscape of this UNESCO World Heritage Site during its later phases.
The Archaeology of Phrygian Gordion, Royal City of Midas
Gordion, the Phrygian capital and royal city of Midas, has emerged as a pivotal site in Asia Minor's history, yet its significance is often overlooked due to its geographical position. Recent excavations, spanning 60 years under the University of Pennsylvania Museum, reveal dramatic shifts in the site's chronology, with discovery dates changing by up to a century. This interdisciplinary study reexamines Gordion's material culture and topography from the 10th century B.C. to Alexander the Great's arrival in 333 B.C., highlighting fluctuating interactions between inhabitants and the landscape. The research, led by experts in Near Eastern archaeology, historic preservation, paleobotany, and ancient furniture, fills a critical gap with a comprehensive assessment of Phrygian Gordion, supported by a new color phase plan. This work underscores the site's importance as a bridge between Greek and Assyrian influences during Midas' reign.
The Date of the Destruction of the Early Phrygian Period at Gordion
A reevaluation of the destruction date at Gordion, a significant Phrygian site in central Anatolia, challenges the long-accepted chronology. While radiocarbon dating suggested a destruction around 830–800 BCE, this study argues that the historical reality aligns with earlier estimates of ca. 700 BCE or later. By analyzing artifacts from the destruction level and royal tumuli burials, the research highlights discrepancies in the C14 determination, emphasizing the need for a critical reassessment of Anatolian Iron Age history. This finding impacts the understanding of Gordion's phases, the reign of King Midas, and cultural assignments, necessitating broader revisions in archaeological interpretations.
Celtic Ritual Activity at Gordion, Turkey: Evidence from Mortuary Contexts and Skeletal Analysis
A bioarchaeological study at Gordion, Turkey, reveals strong evidence of Celtic ritual activity during the Later Hellenistic period (late 3rd to 2nd centuries BCE), challenging the reliance on textual sources alone. Analysis of 47 skeletal remains—divided into Later Hellenistic and Roman groups—shows distinct paleodemographic profiles and mortuary practices. The Later Hellenistic group, with few infants and primarily young/middle-aged adults, was found in mixed or disarticulated contexts, often commingled with animal bones, alongside evidence of perimortem cranial trauma (25% of cases), suggesting ritual sacrifice. In contrast, the Roman group (1st to 2nd centuries CE) exhibited primary burials, including cremations and inhumations, with no signs of violence. This first comprehensive bioarchaeological approach to these populations highlights cultural shifts in mortuary practices and provides tangible evidence of Celtic presence in central Turkey.
Gordion: The Changing Political and Economic Roles of a First Millennium B.C.E. City
Excavations at Gordion, identified as the capital of the Phrygian kingdom in first millennium BCE Turkey, reveal significant political and economic transformations. The site, Yassıhöyük, was confirmed through scale, date, and Phrygian inscriptions, though no direct name evidence for 'Gordion' or its famous king Midas has been found. Research utilized historical descriptions, archaeological remains, and tumuli excavations to trace the city's evolving roles. Findings highlight Gordion's strategic importance at the confluence of the Porsuk and Sakarya Rivers, offering insights into ancient urban dynamics.
The New Chronology of Iron Age Gordion
A significant reassessment of Gordion's Iron Age history reveals that the site was destroyed by fire around 800 B.C., not by invasion as previously believed. This challenges long-standing narratives since excavations began in the 1950s, suggesting a more nuanced understanding of the site's decline. The study combines archaeological evidence with chronological analysis to propose this revised timeline, offering new insights into the dynamics of ancient Anatolia.
Botanical Aspects of Environment and Economy at Gordion, Turkey
Long-term environmental and land-use changes at Gordion, Turkey, are revealed through detailed botanical analysis. The study identifies shifts in vegetation patterns, agricultural practices, and economic activities over centuries, providing insights into the site's ecological history and human adaptation. By analyzing archaeobotanical remains, researchers reconstructed past landscapes, uncovering evidence of crop cultivation, grazing, and forest management. This work advances understanding of both the botanical evolution of western Asia and the socio-economic dynamics at Gordion, a key archaeological site in central Anatolia.
Technology and Trade at Ancient Gordion: Insights from Microanalysis of First Millennium BCE Glass
Microanalysis of First Millennium BCE glass from Gordion reveals significant insights into ancient trade networks and technological advancements. The study identified distinct chemical compositions and manufacturing techniques, suggesting complex trade routes that connected Gordion to distant regions, including the Near East and Egypt. This analysis also highlighted the sophistication of glass production during this period, with evidence of both local craftsmanship and imported materials. By employing advanced microscopy techniques, researchers were able to trace the origins of glass fragments and reconstruct the economic and cultural exchanges that characterized Gordion's role as a key urban center in Anatolia.
The Gordion Wooden Objects, Volume 1 The Furniture from Tumulus MM (2-vol. set)
The Gordion Wooden Objects, Volume 1, reveals that the furniture from Tumulus MM at Gordion, Turkey, represents the most significant collection of well-preserved wooden artifacts from the Near East. Excavated in 1957 and dating to the eighth century BC, these objects, initially misunderstood, are now identified as nine tables, two serving stands, two stools, a chair, and an open log coffin, with three pieces ornately carved and inlaid with religious symbols and geometric motifs. The study employs new photographs, reconstruction drawings, and technical appendices to illuminate the form, techniques, and function of these artifacts, contributing significantly to fields such as textile and wood analysis, anthropological, and religious studies.
14C Record and Wiggle-Match Placement for the Anatolian (Gordion Area) Juniper Tree-Ring Chronology ~1729 to 751 Cal BC, and Typical Aegean/Anatolian (Growing Season Related) Regional 14C Offset Assessment
A high-precision radiocarbon analysis of juniper tree rings from Gordion, central Anatolia, reveals significant agreement with the standard Northern Hemisphere calibration curve (IntCal09) for much of the period ~1729 to 751 cal BC. However, the study identifies potential regional growing-season-related offsets in the Aegean/Anatolian region, particularly during the 9th–8th centuries BC and the later 14th–13th centuries BC, where IntCal09 may not accurately reflect the true radiocarbon record. The typical offset (ΔR) is found to be minor (~2–4 ± 2–4 years), except in periods with additional forcing factors or data issues. This research leverages a final dataset of 128 high-precision measurements, including multiple samples from the 1980s to 2009, to assess calibration accuracy and regional radiocarbon variability.
A Pannonian auxiliary's epitaph from Roman Gordion
A funerary stele discovered at Gordion, Turkey, provides the first concrete evidence of Roman military activity at the site, revealing the presence of a previously unattested auxiliary unit (cohors VII Breucorum c.R. equitata) in northern Galatia during Trajan's Parthian War (AD 114–117). The Latin epitaph on the monument sheds new light on military deployment in Rome's lightly-garrisoned provinces of Asia Minor, where little is known about auxiliary forces. Recent archaeological fieldwork at Gordion has contextualized the stele within a Roman settlement, while newly published epigraphical finds further link its presence to the war's activities.
Anatolian Crossroads: Achaemenid Seals from Sardis and Gordion
Achaemenid seals from Sardis and Gordion reveal contrasting patterns of imperial influence. While Sardis, the satrapal capital, shows high-prestige materials like gold and chalcedony with uniform Achaemenid iconography, Gordion exhibits diverse shapes, materials (including glass), and styles, often imported from distant regions. Most Sardis seals were found in elite tombs, reflecting imperial cohesion and ideology, whereas Gordion's seals, reused in post-Achaemenid contexts, suggest shifts in administrative practices. The study highlights how Achaemenid hegemony manifested differently across sites of varying significance.
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