Publications
Examinations of the medieval wall paintings in Crac des Chevaliers (Syria)
A recent examination of the medieval wall paintings in Crac des Chevaliers, a UNESCO World Heritage Site and one of the most significant Crusader fortifications in the Levant, has uncovered previously unknown details. The study, conducted as part of a new restoration program supported by Hungary and involving the Syro-Hungarian Archaeological Mission, utilized advanced techniques such as ED-XRF, OM, and PFIB-SEM to analyze the murals in situ within the castle's main chapel. These investigations revealed intricate details of damaged and incomplete depictions, providing insights into the painting technique and materials used. The research, conducted at the University of Miskolc's laboratories, contributes significantly to our understanding of the artistic and historical significance of Crac des Chevaliers, especially following the devastation caused by recent conflicts.
Cum Omni Raisagio Montanee... À Propos De La Cession Du Crac Aux Hospitaliers
A critical examination of the 12th-century donation of the Crac des Chevaliers to the Hospitallers reveals complex geopolitical and strategic motivations. Raymond II of Tripoli's cession, often assumed to be purely defensive, appears instead tied to broader diplomatic and economic considerations, including the consolidation of control over key trade routes in the Levant. The study employs a combination of historical documentation analysis, cross-referencing with contemporary chronicles, and spatial reconstruction of the fortress's strategic position. Findings suggest that the donation was not an isolated act but part of a deliberate strategy to strengthen Hospitaller influence in the region, reshaping the balance of power during the Crusades.
Jean Mesqui et Maxime Goepp, Le Crac des chevaliers. Histoire et architecture. Paris, Académie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres, 2018 (Collection Mémoires de l’Académie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres, 54). 462 pages, 890 illustrations.
Crac des Chevaliers, a fortress of immense historical and architectural significance, stands as a testament to the Frankish military presence in the Levant. This 462-page monograph by Jean Mesqui and Maxime Goepp delves deeply into its history and architecture, offering a comprehensive analysis that blends archaeological findings with medieval studies. The book highlights the fortress's dual perception—admired by Lawrence of Arabia as 'the most beautiful castle in the world' yet seen as an obstacle by Muslim chroniclers like Ibn al-Athîr. Through meticulous research and 890 illustrations, it provides a nuanced understanding of Crac des Chevaliers' role during the Crusades, its strategic importance, and its enduring legacy.
The Military Orders and the Ransoming of Captives from Islam (Twelfth to Early Fourteenth Centuries)
A study of the Military Orders' interactions with Muslim rulers from the 12th to early 14th centuries reveals that while captives were often executed, there were significant instances where safe-conduct was granted. The research, based on historical accounts, shows that the fate of captured brethren varied depending on circumstances, such as sieges or battlefield conditions. Notable examples include the execution of Templar and Hospitaller prisoners after the battle of Hattin in 1187, yet also instances where safe-conduct was negotiated, such as during the surrender of Crac des Chevaliers in 1271. The study highlights the inconsistent treatment of captives, influenced by factors like military strategy and political dynamics.
Assessment of the Resistance of Dolomite Stone from Crac des Chevaliers Against Salt Crystallization
Salt crystallization significantly impacts the durability of dolomite stones from Crac des Chevaliers, a 12th-century UNESCO World Heritage Site, with weathering patterns varying by salt type and stone porosity. The study found that while open porosity primarily influences resistance, closed porosity also plays a critical role in decay mechanisms. Sodium sulfate caused granular disintegration, sodium chloride led to pitted surfaces, and magnesium sulfate induced surface exfoliation into thin layers. Notably, NaCl was less aggressive than sulfates. Researchers tested six dolomite lithotypes—two microbioclastic wackstones with low open porosity (11–18 v/v%) and four microcrystalline dolomites (28 v/v% open porosity)—under salt aging in three solutions: sodium chloride, magnesium sulfate, and sodium sulfate.
Bridge of Civilizations: The Near East and Europe c. 1100–1300
A comprehensive analysis of the cultural and architectural exchanges between Europe and the Near East during the 12th and 13th centuries, particularly under Crusader influence, reveals significant advancements in castle engineering, water management, and material culture. The study, featuring contributions from the Syrian-Hungarian Archaeological Mission (SHAM), provides detailed insights into the structural development of key sites like Crac des Chevaliers and Margat, including wall paintings, cooking installations, and medieval burials. It also examines the impact of Crusader occupation on urban landscapes in regions such as Cairo and Latakia, as well as the influence on ecclesiastical architecture, including chapels and churches in Lebanon and Cyprus. The research combines archaeological evidence with historical sources to highlight the complex interplay between European and Near Eastern civilizations during this period.
Fortifications and siege
Medieval fortifications, particularly in the context of UNESCO World Heritage Sites such as Crac des Chevaliers and Qal’at Salah El-Din, evolved significantly by the 13th century, with a focus on defensive structures that could withstand prolonged sieges. A key finding is the emergence of massive towers, like Baybars’ Tower, designed to support counterweight-trebuchets, which became pivotal in the struggle for control during conflicts. These fortifications reflected not only advances in military engineering but also the strategic importance of maintaining political will and resources on both defensive and offensive fronts. The study highlights how successful sieges could yield outcomes comparable to battlefield victories but at substantial risk, underscoring the enduring influence of strongholds on warfare patterns.
Jean Mesqui, Maxime Goepp, Le Crac des Chevaliers. Histoire et architecture
Crac des Chevaliers, a UNESCO World Heritage Site inscribed in 2006 and listed as endangered in 2013, has seen increased attention despite recent degradation. The site's significance is highlighted through digital documentation by the French Ministry of Culture, including its inclusion in the 'Grands sites archéologiques' collection and a dedicated exhibition in 2017. This study by Mesqui and Goepp delves into the historical and architectural nuances of Crac des Chevaliers, offering insights into its evolution and conservation challenges.
Jean-Marc Hofman & Emmanuel Pénicaut (dir.), Le Crac des Chevaliers. Chroniques d’un rêve de pierre
A new book, 'Le Crac des Chevaliers. Chroniques d’un rêve de pierre,' edited by Jean-Marc Hofman and Emmanuel Pénicaut, sheds light on the historic significance of the Crac des Chevaliers in Syria, a symbol of modern Syrian architecture. The publication draws from the archives of Paul Deschamps, housed at the Cité de l’architecture et du patrimoine in Paris, to revisit this monumental fortress that had previously been the subject of a seminal work by P. Deschamps. Through meticulous archival research and historical analysis, the book offers an in-depth exploration of the Crac des Chevaliers' architectural grandeur, its strategic importance during the Crusades, and its enduring legacy as a UNESCO World Heritage Site.
La « barbacane » du Crac des Chevaliers (Syrie) et la signification du terme dans le bassin méditerranéen
A closer look at medieval sources reveals that the term 'barbacane' was historically used more broadly than its modern, restrictive definition in France and the UK. Originally, it referred to low or false walls (fausses-braies) placed before fortified enclosures, not just advanced structures controlling access to gates or bridges. This broader usage persists today in Spain and Italy. Applying this understanding to an inscription at Crac des Chevaliers in Syria provides new insights into its architectural significance.
Friend or foe: Islamic views of the military orders in the Latin East as drawn from Arabic sources KEVIN JAMES LEWIS (UNIVERSITY OF OXFORD)
Syrian Muslims in the Latin East held nuanced views of the monastic military orders, recognizing their dual nature as both monks and warriors. Contrary to previous assumptions, Arabic sources suggest a deeper understanding among Muslims of the orders' monastic vocation, which added cultural and ideological dimensions to conflicts between Christians and Muslims. The study reveals an apparent paradox: while some sources depict the orders as allies, others portray them as infidels, highlighting the complexity of their perception. Research analyzed Arabic terms for the Hospitallers (isbitāriyya) and Templars (dāwiyya), tracing their etymology to Latin or Old French roots, rather than Syriac origins proposed earlier. This challenges existing scholarship and sheds light on the semantic distinction of these orders from other Franks.
Hospitaller patronage and the mural cycle of the Church of the Resurrection at Abu-Ghosh (Emmaus) – a new reading GIL FISHHOF (TEL AVIV UNIVERSITY)
A distinctive 'art of the Hospitaller Order' remains elusive, despite analysis of surviving Crusader-era artworks. Research into the mural cycle at Abu-Ghosh (Emmaus) and comparisons with frescos from Crac des Chevaliers and Marqab castles reveal no conclusive iconographic pattern unique to Hospitaller patronage. While some scenes, like the beheading of Saint John the Baptist, align with Hospitaller themes, others—such as depictions of hellish tortures or blessed souls—do not. This study challenges the notion of a coherent visual identity for the Order, highlighting the complexity and diversity of Crusader-era art.
The Latin Church of Antioch after 1187
After Saladin's decisive victory at Hattin in 1187, his campaign to conquer northern Crusader states revealed the resilience of certain fortresses and regions. Despite significant victories, Saladin failed to capture Tripoli, Tortosa, Antioch, Crac des Chevaliers, Qal’at Salah El-Din (Qusair), or other key strongholds. The treaty with King Richard I of England in 1192 secured the independence of these areas, which remained under Crusader control due to the fragmentation and internal strife among Saladin's Aiyubid successors. Post-Saladin, the Aiyubid princes largely maintained peaceful relations with their Frankish neighbors until new crusades disrupted this stability. This study highlights the strategic importance of these fortresses in preserving Crusader territories and the role of political dynamics in shaping regional power structures during the late 12th century.
Crusader Heritages and Imperial Preservation
France's colonial-era preservation of the Crac des Chevaliers, a Crusader castle in Syria, reveals how imperial narratives shaped heritage conservation. Acquired and restored by France in 1934, the site was promoted as both a symbol of French architectural primacy and an early chapter of its empire. The Museum of French Monuments, founded in 1879, played a key role in this narrative, initially showcasing comparative sculpture but later rebranding to emphasize French influence globally. Through exhibitions like the 1931 Colonial Exhibition, France intertwined national and colonial identities, positioning Crusader heritage as a proxy for broader imperial claims. This study highlights how heritage preservation served dual purposes: domestic nationalism and international prestige, demonstrating the political dimensions of cultural conservation.
Céramiques des forteresses croisées, ismaéliennes, ayyoubides et mameloukes de Syrie du Nord
A comprehensive analysis of ceramic artifacts from northern Syrian fortresses reveals distinct regional, cultural, and economic patterns shaped by the successive occupation of these sites. The study, conducted on ceramics unearthed from Crac des Chevaliers, Qal’at Salah El-Din, and other fortified structures, highlights how geographical location—whether coastal, mountainous, or in the Orontes Valley—influenced ceramic production and trade during the 11th to 15th centuries. This period saw control transitioning between Crusaders, Ismaelites, Ayyubids, and Mamluks, with each group leaving a unique imprint on the material culture. The research employs comparative analysis of ceramic assemblages to uncover these historical dynamics, providing new insights into the socio-economic landscape of medieval Syria.
Les Hospitaliers
The Order of the Knights Hospitaller, originating from a hospital founded in Jerusalem in the 11th century, evolved into a powerful military-religious order. Initially dedicated to caring for pilgrims and providing medical aid, it transitioned into a military role by the 12th century, defending the Holy Land and Latin states with formidable fortresses like Crac des Chevaliers. The order's strategic resources were bolstered by a vast network of houses in Western Christendom, enabling its military campaigns across the Levant and Iberian Peninsula. Displaced from the Holy Land after the fall of Acre in 1291, it relocated to Cyprus, Rhodes, and ultimately Malta, where it continues its charitable legacy today.
Le portail d'Acre transporté au Caire : sources et diffusion des modèles rayonnants en Terre Sainte au milieu du XIIIe siècle
A 13th-century rayonnant-style marble portal, originally from Acre, was transported to Cairo and incorporated into the mausoleum and madrasa of Mamluk Sultan al-Nasir Muhammad (completed in 1403/1404). This architectural artifact, looted by a victorious emir after the fall of Acre in 1291, symbolized dynastic legitimacy and was later repurposed as a trophy. Analysis reveals its design aligns with Parisian structures from around 1240–1250, suggesting it may have been created during King Louis IX's stay in the Holy Land (1248–1254). The study supports this by comparing it to two other nearby ensembles—Nicosia Cathedral’s former north portal and the forecourt of the Crac des Chevaliers—which also reflect Parisian influences, likely disseminated through Louis IX's influence.
Provincial Government and the Estate in Europe
A historical analysis reveals the chronic financial strain faced by the Knights Hospitaller, particularly at their key fortifications Crac des Chevaliers and Qal’at Salah El-Din (Margat), due to persistent conflicts, resource scarcity, and environmental challenges. Master Hugh Revel’s 1268 account highlights the Order's inability to sustain operations amid attacks from the sultan of Egypt, drought, and abandoned lands, underscoring a long-standing liquidity crisis despite perceived wealth. The study identifies recurring financial difficulties (1170–1310) exacerbated by climate instability, pestilence, and reduced Christian-controlled territory post-1187, challenging contemporary perceptions of the Order’s solvency.
Reaching Maturity, 1177–1206
A critical phase in the development of Crac des Chevaliers and Qal’at Salah El-Din, two UNESCO World Heritage Sites, was marked by significant architectural and political advancements between 1177 and 1206. The study highlights that the Order of the Knights Hospitaller, following Master Cast of Murols' death, transitioned towards a more peaceful and pilgrim-focused approach under Jobert's leadership. This shift was pivotal in stabilizing the Order's financial position, enabling large-scale reconstruction efforts post-earthquake and facilitating Count Raymond III of Tripoli's ransom negotiation with Muslims. The research underscores the Order's strategic use of its landed estate to recover financially and its diplomatic influence during this period.
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