Publications
From monitoring to forecasting: predictive modelling of thermal-induced displacements in heritage masonry – the Batalha Monastery case study
A groundbreaking study at the Monastery of Batalha, Portugal, demonstrates that predictive modelling can accurately forecast thermal-induced displacements in heritage masonry, moving beyond traditional reactive monitoring. By integrating fibre optic sensing with lag-based regression models, researchers achieved high predictive accuracy (R² values above 0.93 for crack monitoring and 0.75–0.95 for joint monitoring), effectively capturing the delayed thermal response of limestone due to its thermal inertia. This approach enables passive alert systems capable of anticipating structural behaviour under climate-driven temperature cycles, offering a scalable solution for preventive conservation worldwide. The methodology transforms high-resolution monitoring data into a proactive tool, directly addressing the resilience challenges faced by monuments exposed to environmental change.
Image-based automatic detection of efflorescence on limestone heritage constructions: Application to the Monastery of Batalha
A breakthrough in the automated detection of efflorescence on limestone heritage structures has been achieved, demonstrating that material-specific training enhances segmentation performance. The study revealed that convolutional neural networks (CNNs) can accurately delineate efflorescence with a best Binary IoU score of 92%, and even a specific model achieved 76% accuracy. This advancement was validated using imagery from the UNESCO-listed Monastery of Batalha in Portugal, showcasing its real-world applicability. The research highlights that training dataset composition significantly influences segmentation performance, providing practical guidance for quantitative documentation and monitoring of efflorescence in limestone masonry. Unlike previous qualitative assessments, this methodology offers a reproducible, data-driven approach to heritage conservation.
Influence of environmental factors in the assessment of mechanical properties of masonry in historic construction
Environmental humidity significantly influences the mechanical properties of historic masonry, as demonstrated by a study at the Monastery of Batalha. The research found that humidity acts as a confounding factor, altering measurements of wave propagation velocity and Schmidt hardness obtained through non-destructive testing. Predictive models incorporating humidity improved the accuracy of estimating P-wave velocity, offering a more reliable approach for assessing elastic properties in heritage structures. This study establishes a framework for integrating environmental effects into conservation practices, enhancing the reliability of mechanical characterisation in historic masonry.
SubD and traditional modelling techniques for Gothic architecture: insights from the Founder’s Chapel into HBIM integration
A hybrid approach combining parametric modelling with SubD, NURBS, and mesh-based techniques emerges as the optimal strategy for documenting complex Gothic architecture, such as the Founder’s Chapel at the Monastery of Batalha. This study demonstrates that while parametric modelling excels in adaptability and integration with surrounding elements, SubD offers a novel, highly efficient method for capturing intricate vaulted geometries with high accuracy. The research, leveraging terrestrial laser scanning point cloud data, evaluated geometric accuracy, time efficiency, and model flexibility across four techniques, revealing that project-specific requirements should guide the selection of modelling approaches rather than technical preferences alone. This integrated strategy enhances documentation fidelity while emphasizing the need for improved interoperability between HBIM methods.
Modelling Techniques for Gothic Built Heritage: An HBIM Case Study of the Founder’s Chapel, Batalha Monastery
Research on Gothic built heritage reveals that no single modelling technique is universally optimal for Heritage Building Information Modelling (HBIM). Instead, the study of Batalha Monastery’s Founder’s Chapel vaults demonstrates that parametric modelling should serve as the foundational approach, strategically complemented by NURBS and mesh generation based on project-specific requirements. Parametric modelling excels in establishing relational connections with adaptability, while NURBS offers mathematically precise surface representation, and mesh generation ensures documentation fidelity. These findings underscore the need for improved interoperability between techniques to enhance heritage preservation efforts.
Smart 3D printed elements for conservation of damaged heritage structures
Smart 3D-printed elements integrating sensor technologies offer a groundbreaking approach to the conservation of UNESCO World Heritage Sites, such as the Monastery of Batalha. This study demonstrates that 3D printing, when paired with materials like natural hydraulic lime (NHL) pastes and thermoplastics, can achieve high shape fidelity while maintaining compatibility with traditional structures. A comparative analysis revealed a trade-off between detailing precision and material authenticity, with NHL pastes showing promise for closer alignment to historical building practices. Innovatively, the incorporation of sensors enables real-time monitoring of environmental conditions and structural integrity, providing a scalable model for heritage conservation efforts worldwide.
Fiber Bragg grating based displacement sensors with low visual impact for structural health monitoring applications – Monastery of Batalha case
A novel, low-visibility displacement sensing system using fiber Bragg gratings has been successfully implemented for long-term structural health monitoring at the UNESCO-listed Monastery of Batalha. This minimally intrusive approach allows for precise tracking of crack and joint movements with minimal visual impact, addressing preservation challenges for heritage sites. The sensors, featuring transparent holders and adjustable pre-strain mechanisms, offer a cost-effective, versatile alternative to traditional methods. Initial data collected over months demonstrates their operational efficacy, providing valuable insights for future conservation interventions.
Non-intrusive monitoring of historic structures using fibre Bragg gratings – Application at the monastery of Batalha
Fibre Bragg gratings (FBGs) emerge as a groundbreaking tool for preserving the structural integrity of historic sites, offering real-time monitoring without compromising authenticity. Applied at the Monastery of Batalha, these non-intrusive sensors detected potential active movement in the cloister, demonstrating their capability to track stresses, strains, and environmental conditions with precision. The study combined FBG technology with laser scanning for a comprehensive assessment, emphasizing the need for reversible sensor integration to safeguard heritage structures while enabling early intervention. This approach sets a new standard for structural health monitoring (SHM) in conservation efforts.
Plasma enhanced chemical vapor deposition (PECVD) of SiOx thin films on Portuguese limestone: An experimental study
Research demonstrates that plasma-enhanced chemical vapor deposition (PECVD) of SiOx thin films on Portuguese limestone effectively protects stone surfaces without compromising their vapor permeability or increasing hydrophobicity. The study found that these micron-sized films, deposited using tetraethoxysilane (TEOS), provide a strong barrier against acidic solutions, reducing dissolution damage while also inhibiting bio-colonization and soiling. Laboratory tests confirmed the films' durability and protective properties, marking the first successful application of cold plasma deposition for stone conservation at UNESCO World Heritage Sites like the Monastery of Batalha.
Shared Heraldry and the Sacred Space: The Building Blocks of João I of Portugal’s Imagery
Heraldry served as a powerful tool for late-medieval monarchies to assert power, with King João I of Portugal leveraging shared heraldic symbols during the 1383-1385 dynastic crisis and beyond. This study reveals how these symbols, integrated into the architecture and iconography of the Monastery of Batalha—a monument commemorating victory at Aljubarrota and later serving as a dynastic necropolis—reinforced royal legitimacy and dynastic continuity. By analyzing the transposition of heraldry from political propaganda to sacred space, the research demonstrates its dual role in both affirming independence and constructing enduring royal imagery.
The Role of Bacteria in Pink Stone Discoloration: Insights from Batalha Monastery
Pink discoloration on the Ançã limestone of Batalha Monastery, a UNESCO World Heritage Site in Portugal, is primarily driven by bacterial biofilms producing carotenoid pigments. Key bacterial genera identified include Bacillus, Gordonia, Serratia, Methylobacterium, and Halalkalicoccus, with high-throughput DNA sequencing and culture-dependent methods revealing their role in biodeterioration. Biocolonization tests using stone mock-ups under simulated monastery conditions confirmed the link between bacterial activity and discoloration, offering critical insights for targeted conservation strategies.
The Royal Funerary Chapels of Batalha: Prestige, Innovation, and Identity (1415-1515)
A reexamination of written and archaeological evidence at the Monastery of Batalha reveals a more precise chronology for its royal funerary chapels, reshaping our understanding of late Gothic architecture in Iberia. The study highlights how King Duarte's innovative design was later adapted by King Manuel I, extending construction until 1515. It also sheds light on the artistic interchange across Europe during this period, involving master builders Huguet and Mateus Fernandes, who brought influences from French, German, and Flemish territories to Portugal. This research not only refines the timeline of Batalha's buildings but also contextualizes them within broader Iberian architectural trends.
The Archival Sources of the Batalha Monastery (Portugal): Unique Collections for the Study of the Monument’s Restoration Work in the 19th Century
A unique and unprecedented archival collection, primarily housed within the Monastery of Batalha itself, offers an unparalleled reconstruction of its 19th-century restoration work. This meticulously documented process, spanning from 1840 to 1900, transformed the former Dominican monastery into a national historical monument while preserving detailed records of interventions and methodologies. The study highlights the exceptional character of these sources within Portuguese monumental archives, their significance in understanding the restoration history of Batalha and broader trends in Portugal, and their potential for interdisciplinary research, including integration with modern technological advancements.
Biodegradation and Microbial Contamination of Limestone Surfaces: An Experimental Study from Batalha Monastery, Portugal
Lichens significantly contribute to the biodeterioration of limestone at Batalha Monastery, Portugal, through mechanical penetration and chemical dissolution. The study used advanced microscopy (OM, LV-SEM + EDS) and X-ray micro-diffractometry (μ-XRD) to analyze stone fragments, while NGS metagenomic DNA testing identified bacterial communities within biofilms. Air quality monitoring revealed that sulfur, nitrogen, and phosphorus-rich pollutants may fuel microbial growth, exacerbating limestone degradation. This research highlights the complex interplay between biological colonization and environmental factors in cultural heritage preservation.
Provenance study of the limestone used in construction and restoration of the Batalha Monastery (Portugal)
A provenance study of the limestone used in the construction and restoration of the Batalha Monastery in Portugal reveals distinct sources for different architectural elements. Analysis using energy-dispersive X-ray fluorescence spectroscopy (ED-XRF), powder X-ray diffractometry (PXRD), and thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) identified that the baluster likely originated from the Valinho do Rei or Reguengo do Fetal quarries, while other components such as part of the church railing, north-aisle eaves arch, and Royal Cloister came from the Pidiogo or Cabeço do Roxo quarries. These findings were supported by Ca-Sr binary diagrams and petrographic evidence, providing insights into the historical construction practices and material sourcing of this UNESCO World Heritage Site.
Surface orange patinas on the limestone of the Batalha Monastery (Portugal): characterization and decay patterns
Orange patinas on the limestone of Batalha Monastery, Portugal, exhibit distinct compositions and decay patterns, suggesting diverse formation pathways. Analysis via μ-XRD and LV-SEM+EDS revealed that the ornament's patina primarily consists of gypsum with minor hematite, indicating possible intentional application as a tint plaster mixture of ochre and lime, while the window tracery's patina contains Ca-oxalates (weddellite and whewellite) with minor hematite, likely formed naturally due to atmospheric pollutants or bacterial activity. The ornament shows decay and delamination, whereas the window tracery exhibits granular decohesion without delamination. This study highlights the complexity of patina formation on limestone monuments and their susceptibility to degradation.
The inhibition of biodegradation on building limestone by plasma etching
Plasma etching emerges as a promising, eco-friendly method for inhibiting microbial biodegradation on limestone surfaces. Research demonstrates that low-pressure plasma discharge effectively ruptures microbial cell structures and removes bio-crusts from oolitic limestone, such as that found in the UNESCO-listed Batalha Monastery in Portugal. Beyond cleaning, plasma treatment decomposes sugar-containing compounds, depriving microorganisms of a key nutrient source and thus suppressing their growth. This dual action—physical disruption and metabolic inhibition—positions plasma etching as a rapid conservation tool to prevent bio-colonization on heritage stone architecture. The study employed FTIR spectroscopy, SEM imaging, optical microscopy, and cell viability assays to validate these effects.
A Building Information Modeling Approach to Integrate Geomatic Data for the Documentation and Preservation of Cultural Heritage
A groundbreaking approach integrating Building Information Modeling (BIM) with multiple non-destructive testing (NDT) techniques—terrestrial laser scanning, ground-penetrating radar, infrared thermography, and UAS-acquired RGB imaging—enables advanced documentation and preservation of cultural heritage sites. Applied to the Monastery of Batalha in Portugal, this method allows for detailed, non-invasive analysis of structural elements like buttresses and masonry vaults, optimizing data treatment and integration within a BIM framework. The study demonstrates how combining geomatic data with automated pathology classification enhances facility management, restoration planning, and research, offering a scalable solution for UNESCO World Heritage Sites.
Mineralogical and chemical characterization of surfa ce orange layers on the limestone of the Monastery of Batalha, Central Portugal
A mineralogical and chemical analysis of orange surface layers on the limestone balustrades and sculptures of the Monastery of Batalha, Portugal, reveals that these patinas are primarily composed of gypsum and hematite, with minor components including halite and weddellite. This finding challenges the assumption that such patinas form naturally through weathering, suggesting instead that they may have been intentionally applied for protective or aesthetic purposes. The study employed X-ray micro-diffractometry (µ-XRD) and low-vacuum scanning electron microscopy coupled with energy-dispersive spectrometry (LV-SEM + EDS) to characterize the layers. These results are compared to 'scialbatura,' a common protective coating used in monument conservation, providing insights into potential historical techniques for stone preservation.
A canopy from the Portuguese Medieval Monastery of Batalha: a singular exemple of micro-architecture in the Cloisters Collection
A unique architectural canopy from the medieval Monastery of Batalha, now part of the MET Cloisters Collection, exemplifies remarkable micro-architecture and artistic quality. This 14th-century piece, originally surmounting one of the Apostle statues at the monastery's main portal, reflects the dual function of Portuguese medieval monasteries as both divine temples and royal funerary places. The study traces the canopy's journey through restoration, art markets, and its current location, while analyzing its composition in relation to the monastery’s architecture. It highlights the canopy's significance as a singular example of master Huguet’s work on the Batalha construction site.
A combined petrographic and geochemical metrological approach to assess the provenance of the building limestone used in the Batalha Monastery (Portugal)
A combined petrographic and geochemical study reveals distinct limestone provenances used in the construction and restoration of the Batalha Monastery, Portugal. By analyzing calcium and strontium alignment via X-ray fluorescence (XRF), along with thin-section petrography, X-ray diffraction (XRD), and thermogravimetric analysis (TGA), researchers identified multiple quarry sources contributing to different parts of the monastery. This finding provides critical insights for future studies on stone decay and conservation strategies, ensuring the preservation of this UNESCO World Heritage Site.
The ground-penetrating radar (GPR) method in the characterization of the Monastery of Batalha
Ground-penetrating radar (GPR) revealed hidden structures and historical details within the Monastery of Batalha, offering critical insights for preservation efforts. The non-destructive method provided high-resolution 2D/3D images, identifying ancient foundations, columns, and archaeological features, including those in the Cloister of D. João I and the Church. GPR's efficiency allowed for rapid data acquisition, contributing to a proposed inner structure model of the walls. These findings underscore its potential as a valuable tool for conservation, recovery, and rehabilitation of UNESCO World Heritage Sites.
Historical Stained Glass Painting Techniques - Technology and preservation
Research on historical stained glass painting techniques reveals that the choice of raw materials, binders, and firing parameters significantly impacts paint adhesion and color outcomes. The study found that using zaffer as a coloring agent does not predict the final result before firing, while smalt allows for better pre-firing assessment. Sanguine red paint's outcome is highly influenced by heating rates, with gum arabic enhancing adhesion. Grisaille paints show evolving surface homogeneity over time, with variations in lead-based glass composition and colorant ratios. Corrosion studies on blue enamels indicate that the lixiviation of alkaline components can alter cobalt's color due to interactions with neighboring ions or Pb2+, potentially forming lead white. These findings, derived from a multi-analytical approach combining historical treatises, recipe reproduction, and laboratory analysis, provide new insights into the preservation and restoration of stained glass, exemplified by comparisons with fragments from Batalha Monastery and other Portuguese heritage sites.
The Influence of Environment in the Alteration of the Stained-Glass Windows in Portuguese Monuments
Research reveals that environmental conditions significantly influence the alteration of stained-glass windows, with potash-lime silicate glass being the most susceptible to degradation. The study exposed soda-lime, potash-lime, and mixed-alkali silicate glasses in three Portuguese monuments—Monastery of Batalha, Monastery of Jerónimos (Lisbon), and Cathedral of Évora—for 10 and 20 months. Analysis using optical microscopy and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy showed that crystalline deposits varied based on atmospheric conditions, with high humidity environments like those in Batalha and Jerónimos leading to more severe alteration layers. While the Cathedral of Évora exhibited dust and salt accumulation without severe chemical damage, the findings underscore the importance of environmental factors in preserving stained-glass heritage.
Dynamic Measurements as Support to the Assessment of the Monastery of Santa Maria Da Vitoria, Batalha
A study on the Monastery of Santa Maria da Vitoria (Batalha) reveals that traffic-induced vibrations, despite being significant due to its proximity to a high-traffic road, remain within safe limits set by international standards. Researchers used accelerometers to measure vibration levels across the monastery's courtyard and at key points like the Combatant Museum and Founder's Chapel over several days. The findings indicate that the maximum measured velocity does not exceed thresholds defined by German DIN 4150 and Italian UNI 9916 standards, suggesting minimal risk of structural damage from traffic vibrations. This assessment provides critical data for preserving this UNESCO-listed monument, symbolizing Portugal's Avis Dynasty.
Frustrated Seeing: Scale, Visibility, and a Fifteenth‐Century Portuguese Royal Monument
The Founder's Chapel at the Monastery of Batalha, Portugal, was a remarkable microcosm of fifteenth-century European artistry. Commissioned by King João I, it featured contributions from renowned architects and stonemasons from France, Flanders, England, and Germany, alongside Portuguese artisans. The chapel once housed magnificent wall paintings and altarpieces, including a notable panel attributed to Rogier van der Weyden, though much of this decoration was lost in the nineteenth century. A significant surviving element is the polychromed limestone tomb of King João I and his wife Philippa of Lancaster, commissioned in 1426 and completed by 1434. This monument stands as a testament to the chapel's historical and artistic significance, reflecting the cultural exchange and craftsmanship of the period.
Jessica Barker in conversation with Joana Ramôa Melo and Pedro Redol
Recent rediscovery of the Monastery of Batalha's religious and spiritual significance challenges its long-standing perception as primarily a national symbol. The 2015 exhibition 'Places of Prayer' aimed to restore balance by curating objects and records from the monastery, countering the emphasis on nationalistic symbolism that emerged post-1834. Research reveals that the Founder's Chapel, often seen through a political lens, was originally conceived with deep religious meaning, much of which has been lost due to secularization. The project 'Monumental Polychromy' further explores this by analyzing medieval wall paintings in the chapel, offering insights into its original artistic and spiritual context.
S2.5 Body Analogies
A deep historical and conceptual link between the human body and architecture, particularly evident in Western culture, was identified through Renaissance-era drawings. This study reveals that architects like Francesco di Giorgio Martini used anthropomorphic analogies to design religious and military structures, with proportions derived from the human form. Notably, a 1795 drawing of Batalha Monastery in Portugal employs a standing figure's dimensions to determine architectural elements, illustrating a universal and self-referential relationship between body and built environments. The research approach combines historical analysis with visual interpretation, emphasizing the symbolic, mythological, and functional significance of these analogies.
Survey and Characterisation of Founder’s Chapel Pathologies of the Santa Maria da Vitoria Monastery, Batalha
A study of the Founder’s Chapel at the Monastery of Batalha, Portugal, reveals that ultrasonic propagation and Schmidt hammer test results consistently reflect the stone's characteristics, providing a non-destructive method for assessing material properties. This finding offers valuable insights for the conservation and restoration of this UNESCO World Heritage Site. The research involved visual inspections to map pathologies, followed by non-destructive testing techniques such as thermography and humidity measurements, conducted using equipment from the Polytechnic Institute of Leiria. These methods allowed for a comprehensive evaluation of the chapel's state of conservation while minimizing invasive procedures.
The sculpted epitaph
A groundbreaking translation and photographic documentation of the longest sculpted epitaph on a medieval tomb in western Europe reveals a 1,700-word Latin inscription commemorating João I, King of Portugal, and his wife Philippa of Lancaster at the Monastery of Batalha. This 15th-century monument challenges traditional perspectives by straddling the intersection of text, image, art, and literature, offering new insights into the evolving status and function of epitaphs during a pivotal period in European history when attitudes toward written and sculpted words were undergoing radical transformation. The study complements ongoing initiatives at Batalha, including the exhibition 'Places of Prayer' (2015) and the interpretation project 'Revealing Medieval Colours,' providing a comprehensive analysis that bridges historical, artistic, and literary disciplines.
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