Publications
Avalanche Susceptibility Mapping of Sagarmatha National Park in Nepal Using GIS-based MCDA–AHP
Approximately 40% of Sagarmatha National Park in Nepal is highly susceptible to avalanches, according to a new study using GIS-based Multi-Criteria Decision Analysis-Analytical Hierarchical Process (MCDA-AHP). This finding reveals that susceptibility extends beyond perennial snow-capped regions to include low-lying areas with seasonal snowfall. The research validated its model by mapping recorded avalanche incidents, showing an 80% overlap with high and very high susceptibility zones. By leveraging Aster GDEM and High Mountain Asia (HMA) snow cover data, the study provides a critical tool for risk assessment in one of Nepal's most iconic regions, where avalanches pose significant hazards year-round.
Landslide Risk Associated with Glacier Tourism in the Mt. Everest Region (Sagarmatha National Park), High-Mountain Nepal
A critical assessment of landslide risk in Sagarmatha National Park, Nepal, reveals that glacier tourism infrastructure—including trekking routes, helipads, and campsites—faces significant exposure to landslides despite low direct intersection with active scars. Land Surface Temperature (LST) emerged as the dominant factor influencing landslide occurrence, followed by rainfall, elevation, slope, and specific land cover types like barren land and alpine meadows. Using advanced models—Random Forest (91% accuracy), Logistic Regression (87%), and Frequency Ratio (84%)—the study highlights that while only 0.52% of trekking routes directly overlap with active landslides, a substantial 28% lie within high-exposure zones. This underscores the vulnerability of glacier tourism destinations to both typical and paraglacial landslides, posing serious implications for Nepal’s tourism sector.
Community Attachment, Emotional Solidarity, and Sustainable Tourism Support: Evidence From Sagarmatha National Park, Nepal
A study on Sagarmatha National Park, Nepal, reveals that strong community attachment significantly boosts support for sustainable tourism by enhancing perceived value and reinforcing emotional solidarity among residents. The research integrates Community Attachment Theory, Social Exchange Theory, and Emotional Solidarity Theory to analyze how these factors interact in tourism-dependent regions. Findings indicate that gender also plays a moderating role in the relationship between emotional solidarity dimensions—such as welcoming nature and sympathetic understanding—and tourism support. Conducted with data from 260 residents in the Khumbu region, the study offers actionable insights for policymakers to foster resident engagement and promote sustainable tourism in sensitive environments.
The use of trekking poles and trail degradation in Sagarmatha National Park, Nepal Himalaya
A significant portion of trekkers in Sagarmatha National Park, Nepal, relies on uncapped metal-tipped poles, which accelerate trail erosion by creating small holes on bare surfaces. The study found that 53.6% of visitors used trekking poles, with 59.2% opting for uncapped ones, exacerbating soil loss during the monsoon season when trails are most vulnerable. To quantify this impact, researchers employed smartphone-based 3D scanning, a novel approach to assess trail degradation. The findings highlight an urgent need for better trail management, advocating for capped poles and sustainable practices to balance increased foot traffic with ecological preservation in mountain national parks.
Analyzing Land Use/Land Cover Dynamics in Mountain Tourism Areas: A Case Study of the Core and Buffer Zones of Sagarmatha and Khaptad National Parks, Nepal
From 1989 to 2021, Sagarmatha National Park (SNP) experienced significant land use/land cover (LULC) changes, with notable decreases in snow/glacier and forest cover by 140.25 km² and 15.36 km², respectively, while grassland, shrubland, glacial lakes, agriculture, and water bodies expanded. Khaptad National Park (KNP) saw similar trends, with forest loss of 19.33 km² in its buffer zone—higher than SNP's—and an increase in built-up areas, indicating rising tourist activities. Climate data revealed contrasting precipitation and temperature patterns between the parks. Projections under a business-as-usual scenario forecast further forest loss (1.61 km² in SNP by 2032) and a sharp decline in snow/glaciers (22.84 km² in SNP's core zone by 2032). The study highlights the need for adaptive park management policies to address these environmental changes.
Assessment of the surface water quality in high-altitude springs in the Sagarmatha (Everest) National Park, Nepal
A three-year study (2008–2010) of high-altitude springs in Sagarmatha National Park, Nepal, revealed deteriorating water quality along major tourist treks. While still meeting WHO and Nepalese drinking water standards, significant annual increases in nitrate-nitrogen and total phosphorus—key indicators of human impact—were detected. These trends suggest worsening degradation, despite current levels remaining below critical thresholds. The research provides a baseline dataset for managing these springs and assessing the effects of tourism on fragile highland ecosystems.
Ecotourism, Environmental Impacts and Sustainability in the Himalayan Settlements: Study of Sagarmatha (Mt. Everest) National Park, Nepal
Current ecotourism development in Sagarmatha (Mt. Everest) National Park, Nepal, fails to meet sustainability goals by adequately benefiting local communities or mitigating environmental degradation. Despite efforts to balance tourism with conservation, the study reveals that forest resource use, cultural heritage deterioration, and environmental impacts persist, threatening the region's long-term viability. A more inclusive, community-driven approach—leveraging local knowledge and stakeholder engagement—is essential for sustainable ecotourism. The research employs a qualitative case study, combining interviews, surveys, participant observation, and archival data to assess environmental impacts and local perceptions.
Status, distribution, and threats of Himalayan Monal (Lophophorus impejanus) in Sagarmatha National Park
A population of 67 Himalayan Monals (Lophophorus impejanus), including 48 males and 19 females, was recorded in Sagarmatha National Park between February and June 2022. These birds were predominantly found in pure pine forests across five blocks—Namche, Furte, Syangboche, Mislung, and Kyangjuma—with a density of 4.69 birds/km², peaking at 7.26 birds/km² in the Namche Block. The study used line transect surveys, direct/indirect evidence (e.g., sightings, scratching marks), and Digital Elevation Models to map distribution between 3250 m and 4021 m above sea level. Key threats identified included habitat degradation, free-ranging dogs, and human disturbance.
Do Buffer Zone Programs Improve Local Livelihoods and Support Biodiversity Conservation? The Case of Sagarmatha National Park, Nepal
Buffer zone programs at Sagarmatha National Park, Nepal, primarily benefit local livelihoods and social welfare but fall short in addressing wildlife conservation conflicts. Despite legal provisions for compensation, traditional practices like 'Nawa' animal rearing and feral dog control remain overlooked, leading to a gap between policy intent and implementation. The study, spanning 2002–2016, identified 99 buffer zone activities, with 42% of park funds allocated to community development and only 22% to conservation and conflict management. This imbalance risks undermining the original purpose of buffer zones, which is to balance livelihood improvements with biodiversity protection. The findings underscore the need for policy updates that prioritize conflict management and integrate traditional practices to ensure sustainable coexistence between communities and wildlife.
The Highest Mountain in the Shadow of Climate Change: Managing Tourism and Conservation in a World Heritage Site: Sagarmatha National Park, Nepal
Climate change is rapidly transforming Sagarmatha National Park (SNP), home to the world's highest flora and fauna, with tourism exacerbating these impacts. A study identifies two key conflicts: between tourism businesses and park management, and a lack of awareness about conservation strategies among residents and stakeholders. To address these issues, the research recommends stronger enforcement and state support for site management. The findings highlight the need for coordinated local and national efforts to balance economic benefits with environmental protection in this UNESCO World Heritage Site.
Tourism-Related Facility Development in Sagarmatha (Mount Everest) National Park and Buffer Zone, Nepal Himalaya
A significant transformation in tourism-related facilities within Sagarmatha National Park and its Buffer Zone (SNPBZ), Nepal, has been driven by rising tourist numbers, improved porter accommodations, and migrant labor. This study reveals that such changes have led to imbalanced development and unequal benefits among villages, posing challenges for sustainable mountain development. To address these issues, diversification of trekking routes and enhancing facility and service quality are suggested as potential solutions. The research employed questionnaire surveys targeting facility owners and managers, alongside interviews with community leaders, officials, and school principals between 2017 and 2019. These findings underscore the dynamic nature of facilities in mountain regions, providing critical insights for sustainable development strategies.
Understanding high mountain aquifers to source drinking water in the Sagarmatha National Park: Geoscientists Without Borders®
A critical insight from research in Sagarmatha National Park reveals that water contamination in the region is primarily driven by human activities, including poor sanitation and climate change impacts. This study, funded by Geoscientists Without Borders, combines water quality measurements, geological mapping, and electrical resistivity tomography (ERT) surveys to assess aquifer characteristics in two communities, Phortse and Lobuche. The findings aim to guide the selection of optimal locations for water treatment facilities and inform resource management policies to mitigate risks from climate change and earthquakes. Unlike traditional solutions that often fail due to complex local dynamics, this project emphasizes an inclusive collaboration with communities, NGOs, the National Park Service, and local governance committees, aiming to empower SNP communities in improving potable water access and resilience.
A Sustainable Solid Waste Management Plan for Sagarmatha (Mt Everest) National Park and Buffer Zone, Nepal
A collaborative approach to solid waste management has been proposed for Sagarmatha (Mt Everest) National Park and Buffer Zone, Nepal. This plan aims to address the growing issue of unsustainable waste disposal exacerbated by tourism growth, which poses significant public health and environmental risks due to open landfills and burning practices that contaminate groundwater and release toxic chemicals. The proposed 4-point process involves source segregation of waste by lodges and households, collection or transfer of recyclables to environmental stations, preprocessing at material recovery facilities, and transportation of preprocessed materials to Lukla airport for onward recycling in Kathmandu. Developed following community consultations, the plan is currently under consideration by local authorities and could serve as a model for other heavily visited high mountain regions if successfully implemented.
Effects of climate change on treeline trees in Sagarmatha (Mt. Everest, Central Himalaya)
Climate change is progressively reducing physiological limitations for treeline trees in Sagarmatha National Park, potentially facilitating further altitudinal forest advance. Research indicates that growth of Abies spectabilis is strongly influenced by summer temperatures, while Betula utilis growth depends on spring precipitation. Stable isotope analysis (δ13C and δ18O) revealed increased photosynthetic efficiency over time, particularly in A. spectabilis, without stronger stomatal control of transpiration. The study combined ring-width measurements with isotopic analysis to assess tree responses to rising temperatures and shifting monsoon patterns at ~4000 m a.s.l. in the Central Himalayas.
Is Foreign Aid Making A Difference? A Case Study of Sagarmatha National Park Forestry Project, Khumbu, Nepal
A community stakeholder approach reveals that foreign aid and NGO involvement in the Sagarmatha National Park Forestry Project (SNPFP) has had a positive impact on the Khumbu region of Nepal, particularly over its 30-year operation. The study highlights that local people are the most reliable indicators of project effectiveness, emphasizing the importance of collaboration between communities, NGOs, and government for sustainable natural resource conservation and rural development. Key informant interviews were used to gauge experiences and perceptions, underscoring the need for localized insights in evaluating aid performance.
Khumbu Since 1950: Cultural, Landscape, and Climate Change in the Sagarmatha (Mt. Everest) National Park, Khumbu, Nepal. By Alton C. Byers
A comprehensive assessment of the Sagarmatha National Park reveals significant transformations in its cultural, landscape, and climatic dimensions over seven decades. Alton C. Byers' work highlights how climate change has reshaped the Khumbu region, including the retreat of glaciers and changes in vegetation patterns, while also documenting shifts in local Sherpa culture and mountaineering practices. The study combines long-term field observations with historical records to provide a nuanced understanding of these interconnected changes. Its interdisciplinary approach offers critical insights into the vulnerability and resilience of high-altitude ecosystems and communities, underscoring the need for adaptive conservation strategies.
Safety and nature versus tourists, athlets and residents in Sagarmatha National Park Nepal
Sagarmatha National Park, Nepal, faces significant challenges and opportunities due to its growing popularity among tourists, athletes, and residents. The study reveals that while tourism contributes to economic development and environmental protection, it also poses risks to the park's natural and social conditions. Historical context shows that nature conservation efforts have evolved globally since the 19th century, with Nepal implementing strict laws in the mid-20th century. The research combines data analysis and field observations to assess the park's ecological state and the attitudes of its stakeholders toward the environment. It highlights the need for balanced integration of tourism, sports, economic interests, and nature conservation to ensure sustainable development.
Temporal annual and seasonal NDVI variation of Sagarmatha national park, Nepal and its relationship with precipitation and soil moisture
A study analyzing Sagarmatha National Park (SNP) from 2000 to 2018 found that greenery, including forests, shrubs, grasslands, and agricultural lands, increased over this period. This growth was attributed to the inverse relationship between vegetation changes and both precipitation and soil moisture levels. The research used satellite-based Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI), along with precipitation and soil moisture data, to assess these trends. The findings indicate that the park's greenery has been well-preserved, providing valuable ecological insights for future conservation policies and social planning in the region.
An Assessment of Drinking Water Sources in Sagarmatha National Park (Mt Everest Region), Nepal
A study assessing drinking water sources in Sagarmatha National Park (Mt Everest Region), Nepal, found that while physical parameters met World Health Organization standards, fecal contamination levels indicated low to moderate risk, failing Nepali national standards. The research, conducted during the 2016 premonsoon dry season, sampled 34 water sources and revealed a positive correlation between bacteria content and temperature, as well as a weak negative correlation with elevation. Samples from lower-elevation areas (<3500 m) showed higher levels of Escherichia coli and coliform bacteria, suggesting increased surface water influence in these regions. The findings highlight the potential for deeper groundwater to remain uncontaminated, warranting further investigation.
E. coli and Coliform Bacteria as Indicators for Drinking Water Quality and Handling of Drinking Water in the Sagarmatha National Park, Nepal
A study conducted during the 2016 pre-monsoon dry season in the Khumbu Valley, Sagarmatha National Park (SNP), and its buffer zone revealed significant fecal contamination in drinking water sources, primarily groundwater-fed springs. The research found weak correlations between total coliform data and increasing temperature, decreasing elevation, and pH, but a notable correlation between population density—including tourist numbers—and higher levels of E. coli and total coliforms. Importantly, drinking water stored in tanks or transported long distances exhibited much higher bacterial contamination, suggesting that improved water handling practices could significantly enhance drinking water quality and public health outcomes.
Drinking Water Quality in the Sagarmatha National Park, Nepal
A first-of-its-kind study reveals significant fecal contamination of drinking water sources in the Sagarmatha National Park, Nepal, particularly in lower-altitude, more populated areas and during the pre-monsoon summer season. The research identified a strong correlation between E. coli levels, population density, tourist traffic, and elevation, with surface water showing higher contamination than groundwater-fed springs. Despite meeting WHO standards for physical properties like temperature, pH, conductivity, and total dissolved solids (TDS), seasonal variability was observed, with May samples exhibiting higher bacterial presence than November ones. Conductivity and TDS generally decreased with elevation, while pH increased, underscoring the complex interplay of tourism, geography, and climate on water quality in this UNESCO World Heritage Site.
Land Use and Land Cover Change in Sagarmatha National Park, a World Heritage Site in the Himalayas of Eastern Nepal
Sagarmatha National Park, a UNESCO World Heritage Site in the Himalayas of eastern Nepal, has experienced significant land use and land cover (LULC) changes between 1992 and 2011. Satellite imagery analysis revealed that above 6000 meters, snow and ice coverage decreased, leading to an expansion of glacial lakes and barren areas. Below 6000 meters, forest and farmland diminished while grazing, settlement, and shrubland expanded, indicating severe land degradation. Sociological data from interviews and workshops showed that local perceptions often missed slower changes detectable via satellite imagery. Rapid economic development, tourism pressure, civil war, and limited protected area management were identified as key drivers of these changes, particularly below 6000 meters. While global factors like climate change cannot be locally mitigated, improved management practices could address local drivers to support conservation and sustainable development in this high-altitude ecosystem.
Depicting community perspectives: repeat photography and participatory research as tools for assessing environmental services in Sagarmatha National Park, Nepal
A novel application of repeat photography as a diachronic photo-diary reveals a strong consensus among local communities in Sagarmatha National Park, Nepal, regarding adverse changes to environmental services (ES), particularly protection against natural hazards like landslides and floods. This study highlights the potential of participatory research methods, such as repeat photography, to complement traditional biophysical ecosystem assessments by integrating diverse stakeholders' knowledge and addressing power imbalances in complex social-ecological systems. The findings underscore the importance of incorporating local perspectives into conservation efforts to enhance livelihoods and protect UNESCO World Heritage Sites.
Applying Scenario Planning to Park and Tourism Management in Sagarmatha National Park, Khumbu, Nepal
Scenario planning emerges as a critical tool for navigating long-term uncertainty and complexity in managing Sagarmatha National Park, Nepal. This study demonstrates how participatory scenario planning can guide adaptive management by engaging stakeholders from tourism, park comanagement institutions, and local communities. By developing four plausible scenarios based on governance changes and external tourism influences, the research highlights the need for strategic reflection on potential conflicts and long-term visions. The approach enables stakeholders to explore multiple perspectives, assess strategic goals, and better prepare for social-ecological changes driven by globalization and tourism growth.
Energy, Forest, and Indoor Air Pollution Models for Sagarmatha National Park and Buffer Zone, Nepal
A critical decline of 38% in forest biomass within Sagarmatha National Park and Buffer Zone (SNPBZ), Nepal, from 1992 to 2008 has been attributed to rising fuelwood demand driven by tourism growth. This trend threatens the preservation of current forest conditions unless 75% of fuelwood is replaced with alternative energy sources. The study employed a participatory modeling framework to simulate management scenarios, revealing that reducing fuelwood use by 75% and dung use by 80% could lower indoor carbon monoxide (CO) concentrations to WHO-recommended limits. This research underscores the urgent need for adaptive management strategies to mitigate environmental degradation and health risks in this remote mountain region.
Solid Waste and Water Quality Management Models for Sagarmatha National Park and Buffer Zone, Nepal
Most solid waste in Sagarmatha National Park and its Buffer Zone is organic, paper, or minor reused material, but non-degradable waste like glass, metal, and plastic poses significant environmental risks due to improper disposal methods such as burning or open dumps. These practices, along with anthropogenic activities and poor sanitation infrastructure, contribute to water contamination, particularly in flood-prone areas near watercourses. The study developed participatory consensus-building models to simulate management scenarios, identifying potential solutions for waste and water quality issues. These findings offer insights applicable to other protected mountain landscapes facing similar challenges due to population growth, changing consumption patterns, and tourism.
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