Publications
A novel CRITIC-driven framework for fine-scale urban sprawl typology classification: evidence from Colombo, Kandy, and Hong Kong
A novel framework for classifying urban sprawl types, combining high-resolution spatial analysis and machine learning, reveals that transport infrastructure—particularly road density and proximity to main roads—is the dominant driver of urban expansion patterns. The study identifies five distinct sprawl typologies (infill, extension, linear, clustered, and leapfrog) across Colombo, Kandy (Sri Lanka), and Hong Kong using a CRITIC-driven approach that prioritizes metrics based on discriminative power and independence. Validated against morphological elements and building density, this method offers precise, locally adaptive classification with robust predictive performance, supporting evidence-based urban planning for sustainable development.
PM2.5 air pollution trends and patterns in Kandy, Sri Lanka
Air pollution levels in Kandy, Sri Lanka, exhibit distinct temporal patterns, with PM2.5 concentrations peaking during early mornings and evenings while dipping to their lowest in afternoons. The study, conducted from January to December 2019 using low-cost sensors, identified Wednesdays and Thursdays as the worst days for air quality, whereas Sundays showed the least pollution. Monthly analysis revealed December as the month with the lowest PM2.5 levels, influenced significantly by wind speed, direction, and rainfall patterns. This research underscores the need for consistent long-term monitoring and management of air pollution to mitigate its adverse health effects in low- and middle-income countries.
Sustainability practices in the Hospitality Industry: Evidence from Chain Hotels in Kandy
Hotels in Kandy, Sri Lanka, have significantly adopted sustainability practices, particularly focusing on environmental and socio-cultural aspects. However, there is a notable gap in understanding how economic indicators relate to these sustainability commitments. Larger hotel chains demonstrate a more consistent implementation of sustainable practices compared to smaller ones. This research provides valuable insights for both future researchers and local hospitality practitioners by offering a comprehensive overview of the current state of sustainability practice adoption in Kandy.
Chemical composition of rainwater at three sites in Kandy/Peradeniya, Sri Lanka, and its effect on air pollution
A study analyzing rainwater composition at three sites in Kandy, Sri Lanka, revealed that the city center exhibited the highest levels of air pollution, with chloride (Cl−) and sulfate (SO4²⁻) being dominant anions. No acid rain was detected during the 11-month sampling period from February to December 2019. Trace metals followed a consistent sequence across sites: zinc (Zn), iron (Fe), aluminum (Al), manganese (Mn), copper (Cu), and lead (Pb). Significant correlations were observed between conductivity, salinity, and total dissolved solids (TDS) in all sites, while specific metal correlations varied by location. The research highlights the need for continuous rainwater monitoring to assess air pollution in Sri Lanka.
Investigating ground deformation due to a series of collapse earthquakes by means of the PS-InSAR technique and Sentinel 1 data in Kandy, Sri Lanka
A series of collapse earthquakes in Kandy, Sri Lanka, has been linked to significant ground deformation, with uplift rates reaching +20 mm/year over urban areas and subsidence of up to -40 mm/year near Victoria Dam. This finding emerges from a study employing PS-InSAR (Permanent Scatterer Interferometry) and D-InSAR (Differential InSAR) techniques using Sentinel 1A satellite data from 2019 to 2021. The research also identified subsidence along the Mahaweli river lineament, ranging from -29 to -36 mm/year, and correlated deformation areas with landslide risk. Additionally, irregularities in terrestrial and groundwater levels were detected using GRACE-Follow-On data, suggesting dynamic geological activity. This study serves as a prototype for investigating low-magnitude incomplete collapse earthquakes in diverse geotechnical settings.
Exploring home-to-school trip mode choices in Kandy, Sri Lanka
School trip modes in Kandy, Sri Lanka, are significantly influenced by gender, age, household income, school type, and distance. Male students tend to prefer public buses, walking, or private vehicles over three-wheelers or motorcycles, while older students favor walking, school buses, and public buses compared to younger ones. Distance to school impacts all transport modes, with national or provincial school students more likely to use school buses and less likely to opt for private vehicles. These findings offer critical insights for congestion management in urban centers during peak hours and suggest potential regulations for safer, reliable private transport services like school vans.
Ambient PM2.5 and PM10 Exposure and Respiratory Disease Hospitalization in Kandy, Sri Lanka
A 10 μg/m³ increase in same-day exposure to PM2.5 and PM10 was associated with a 1.95% and 1.63% rise, respectively, in respiratory disease hospitalizations in Kandy, Sri Lanka, while asthma hospitalizations increased by 4.67% and 4.04%. The study, using Generalized Additive Models (GAM), found that older adults (65+) were particularly vulnerable, with higher risks during high air pollution periods for COPD and pneumonia admissions. These findings underscore the need for active measures to improve ambient air quality in the region to mitigate health impacts.
An analysis of daylighting performance of learning spaces in local government sector schools in Kandy
Excessive or inadequate natural light in classrooms can significantly hinder learning and visual comfort, according to a study analyzing daylighting performance in schools within the UNESCO World Heritage Site of Kandy, Sri Lanka. The research found that east-facing upper-level classrooms suffer from uneven light distribution, excessive shadows, and color distortion due to poor integration of daylight with design, impairing students' ability to perceive objects and text. Similarly, ground-floor south-facing classrooms experience non-uniform lighting, leading to reading difficulties. The study combined field measurements, questionnaires, and simulations using Autodesk Ecotect 2011 & Revit to assess illuminance levels and daylight performance, revealing a critical gap in awareness regarding optimal daylight integration in educational spaces.
The correlation between three teleconnections and leptospirosis incidence in the Kandy District, Sri Lanka, 2004–2019
A significant correlation between three major teleconnections—El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO), ENSO Modoki, and the Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD)—and leptospirosis incidence (LI) in the Kandy District of Sri Lanka has been identified. The study, spanning 2004 to 2019, found that these teleconnections modulate LI with lag periods ranging from 1.9 to 11.5 months, likely through their influence on local rainfall and other weather parameters. Using wavelet time series analysis and time-lagged detrended cross-correlation analysis (DCCA), researchers confirmed strong correlations between ENSO, IOD indices, and LI, with lag periods of 2-5 months. The findings suggest that monitoring extreme teleconnection events could help mitigate leptospirosis outbreaks by implementing preventive measures during critical lag periods.
Analysis of Life Quality in a Tropical Mountain City Using a Multi-Criteria Geospatial Technique: A Case Study of Kandy City, Sri Lanka
Socioeconomic factors, particularly transportation, significantly impact life quality more than environmental ones in Kandy City, Sri Lanka. A multi-criteria geospatial analysis revealed that 26% of the city's area falls within high-life-quality zones, concentrated around the city center, with over half of the land within five kilometers from the center exhibiting the highest quality. The study developed a life quality index (LQI) using the analytic hierarchy process (AHP) and gradient analysis to assess spatial distribution patterns, providing actionable insights for urban planning and policy-making to enhance livability in Kandy.
Breeding Habitat Distribution of Medically Important Mosquitoes in Kurunegala, Gampaha, Kegalle, and Kandy Districts of Sri Lanka and Potential Risk for Disease Transmission: A Cross-Sectional Study
A significant variation in the distribution and diversity of medically important mosquito species was observed across four districts in Sri Lanka, including Kandy. The study, conducted from 2017 to 2018, identified 4663 mosquito larvae belonging to seven genera and fifteen species, with paddy fields showing the highest species richness. Negative interspecific association coefficients among vector mosquitoes suggest limited co-occurrence, which could influence disease transmission dynamics. These findings provide critical insights for targeted vector control interventions in UNESCO World Heritage Sites like Kandy, potentially improving public health strategies by expanding beyond traditional disease-specific approaches.
Climate change induced vulnerability and adaption for dengue incidence in Colombo and Kandy districts: the detailed investigation in Sri Lanka
A higher vulnerability to dengue, driven by climate change, is observed in Colombo compared to Kandy, with the Colombo Municipal Council (CMC) area exhibiting exceptionally high exposure and sensitivity. The study used a composite index approach, incorporating 23 key indicators—such as entomological, epidemiological, meteorological, land-use, and socio-demographic factors—to assess vulnerability across 38 Medical Officer of Health (MOH) areas in both districts. Principal Component Analysis (PCA) was employed to weight these variables. While Colombo showed moderate to high vulnerability, Kandy’s Kandy Municipal Council (KMC) also displayed notable susceptibility, though generally lower than Colombo. Adaptive capacity varied, with Piliyandala and Menikhinna areas demonstrating stronger resilience. The findings underscore the need for targeted resource allocation in dengue epidemic management, particularly in highly vulnerable urban regions.
COVID-19 Outbreak and Urban Green Space, Food Security, and Quality of Life: Case of Urban Home Gardens in Kandy, Sri Lanka
Urban home gardening significantly enhanced social well-being and mental health during Sri Lanka's COVID-19 curfew, benefiting over 50% of participants. This practice also improved environmental quality through greening and waste management while ensuring food security by supplementing diets with homemade vegetables. Despite challenges in achieving desired harvests, the study highlights the potential for urban home gardening to mitigate the impacts of disasters like pandemics. The research used questionnaire surveys and field observations in Kandy's municipal area, analyzing data before and during curfew periods. Findings suggest that promoting crop specifications for healthy diets could sustain this trend without compromising large-scale farming livelihoods.
Local Knowledge and Perspectives of Change in Homegardens: A Photovoice Study in Kandy District, Sri Lanka
A photovoice study in Kandy District, Sri Lanka, reveals that local farmers' perspectives on socio-ecological change in homegardens are critical for sustainable conservation. The research highlights key challenges such as wildlife conflict, crop damage, land scarcity, and a decline in agricultural interest among younger generations. Photovoice emerged as an effective method to capture rich, participant-driven narratives that provide deep insights into the human-ecological relationship within these traditional agroforestry systems. These findings underscore the importance of integrating local knowledge and community engagement for understanding and addressing socio-ecological changes in homegardens.
Sustainable City Geometries: Sacred Geometry of Ritual Space, Architecture and City Landscape in Kandy, Sri Lanka
A groundbreaking analysis of Kandy's Esala Perahera rituals reveals that the sacred city's geometry and architecture embody sustainable urban principles through intricate spatial relationships. The study demonstrates how 15-day ritual performances establish deeper dimensions of sacred geometries, linking people, temples, rivers, valleys, and mountains in a spiritually resonant landscape. By employing multidimensional geometrical analysis—spanning two, three, and higher dimensions—the research uncovers the spiritual and physical layers of Kandy's cityscape, contrasting traditional sacred geographies with modern developments. This approach strengthens phenomenological, anthropological, and ethnographical insights, offering new perspectives on how ritual spaces can inform sustainable urban design.
Biomass and Carbon Stock Estimation of Udawattakele Forest Reserve in Kandy District of Sri Lanka
The Udawattakele Forest Reserve (UFR) in Kandy, Sri Lanka, stores approximately 4,453.55 metric tons of carbon per hectare, equivalent to sequestering 16,344.52 metric tons of atmospheric carbon dioxide. This estimate was derived using allometric equations to calculate tree biomass and its associated carbon content, revealing a moderate yet significant carbon stock for the reserve. The study highlights UFR's role in mitigating climate change by acting as a substantial terrestrial carbon reservoir. While natural forests within the reserve hold 36.55 metric tons of carbon per hectare, plantations exhibit higher carbon density at 44.89 metric tons per hectare, underscoring the potential for afforestation strategies to enhance carbon sequestration in similar ecosystems.
Challenges of sustainable tourism in ancient cities: a case study based on Kandy, Sri Lanka
Sustainable tourism in ancient cities, particularly UNESCO World Heritage Sites, faces significant challenges that hinder its effective implementation. A case study of Kandy, Sri Lanka, reveals critical obstacles to sustainable practices, offering valuable insights for other heritage localities. The research employs a qualitative approach to analyze these challenges, providing actionable recommendations for balancing tourism development with cultural preservation and environmental sustainability. This study underscores the need for strategic planning to ensure that ancient cities can benefit from tourism while maintaining their historical integrity.
Land-Use/Land-Cover Changes and Their Impact on Surface Urban Heat Islands: Case Study of Kandy City, Sri Lanka
Between 1996 and 2017, Kandy City, Sri Lanka, experienced a dramatic expansion of impervious surfaces (IS), growing from 529 hectares to 5833 hectares—an annual increase of 11.1% to 12.2%. This rapid urbanization intensified the surface urban heat island (SUHI) effect, with persistent IS areas exhibiting significantly higher land-surface temperatures (LST) than newly added IS, averaging 1.43°C warmer due to their dense urban surroundings. The study, using Landsat data and geospatial techniques, revealed that while forest cover declined, strategic green landscape management could mitigate SUHI impacts. These findings underscore the critical role of LULC changes in shaping long-term urban heat dynamics.
The correlation between local weather and leptospirosis incidence in Kandy district, Sri Lanka from 2006 to 2015
Leptospirosis incidence in Kandy district, Sri Lanka, is strongly correlated with local weather variables, including rainfall, humidity, and temperature. Research indicates that peaks in wet days, heavy rainfall (>100 mm), minimum and average temperatures, and humidity are followed by increased leptospirosis cases, while reduced rainfall correlates with lower incidence. The study analyzed weekly data from 2006 to 2015 using wavelet analysis, revealing that the climate in Kandy is highly conducive to leptospirosis transmission, warranting targeted preventive measures during high-risk weather conditions.
Community engagement and pollution mitigation at Kandy Lake, Sri Lanka
A collaborative project successfully demonstrated sustainable pollution mitigation at Kandy Lake, a UNESCO World Heritage Site and culturally significant landmark in Sri Lanka. By integrating wastewater management technologies—such as floating wetlands and an aerobic sequencing batch reactor (SBR)—alongside community engagement initiatives, the study achieved measurable improvements in water quality. The research, conducted by the University of Peradeniya and Nanyang Environment and Water Research Institute, also fostered long-term cooperation among local authorities, schools, and government agencies. Post-project developments included expanded sewerage systems, centralized wastewater treatment, and the integration of Kandy Lake into urban planning, underscoring the project's lasting impact on heritage preservation and environmental sustainability.
Empirical optimization of risk thresholds for dengue: an approach towards entomological management of Aedes mosquitoes based on larval indices in the Kandy District of Sri Lanka
Researchers have identified critical risk thresholds for dengue vector indices, specifically the Premise Index (PI), Breteau Index (BI), and Container Index (CI) for Aedes aegypti and Aedes albopictus in the Kandy District of Sri Lanka. Using Gumbel frequency analysis, they determined that PI values above 6.75 indicate low risk, while values exceeding 9.43 and 12.82 signify moderate and high risk, respectively. These thresholds can serve as decision-making indicators for vector control efforts, optimizing the use of financial, technical, and human resources. The study suggests that these empirically derived cut-off values could enhance dengue management strategies in Sri Lanka.
Preservation of Archeological Sites Using 3D-Scanning Documentation Case Study: Sri Dalada Maligawa, Kandy, Sri Lanka
A comprehensive 3D-scanning documentation of the Sri Dalada Maligawa, a UNESCO World Heritage Site and pivotal Buddhist pilgrimage center, reveals critical vulnerabilities to environmental threats such as earthquakes and monsoon rains, as well as human-induced risks like terrorist attacks. The study employed Terrestrial-Laser-Scanning (TLS) and Structured-Light-Scanning (SLS) to create high-resolution CAD plans, point cloud visualizations, orthoimages, and virtual walkthroughs, addressing the lack of accurate documentation for this culturally significant temple. This approach not only preserves architectural details but also enables detailed analysis for conservation strategies, leveraging noninvasive digital technologies to safeguard cultural heritage against degradation.
Resurgence of Ethno-Religious Sentiment against Muslims in Sri Lanka: Recent Anti-Muslim Violence in Ampara and Kandy
Recent anti-Muslim violence in Sri Lanka, particularly in Ampara and Kandy, has been linked to deep-seated ethno-religious tensions fueled by Sinhala Buddhist hardliners. The study identifies key root causes: fear of Muslim demographic growth, myths surrounding sterilization pills, and economic rivalry between Muslims and Sinhalese. This violence, often with complicity from law enforcement, resulted in significant damage to mosques, businesses, and properties belonging to the Muslim community. The research highlights an urgent need for improved social security measures to protect ethno-religious minorities in Sri Lanka. The analysis relies on secondary data and employs a descriptive-interpretative approach.
Sri Dalada Maligawa – 3D-Scanning and Documentation of the Temple of the Sacred Tooth Relic at Kandy, Sri Lanka
A comprehensive 3D documentation of the Sri Dalada Maligawa, a UNESCO World Heritage Site and pivotal Buddhist pilgrimage destination, has been successfully achieved through advanced scanning techniques. This research utilized Terrestrial-Laser-Scanning (TLS) and Structured-Light-Scanning (SLS) to capture detailed architectural data, including high-resolution details of the temple's rich decorations. The digital archive created from this project not only serves as a vital resource for preserving cultural heritage but also facilitates site monitoring, particularly for detecting structural issues such as cracks. Additionally, the study emphasizes knowledge transfer, aiming to empower local specialists with the skills needed for future analysis of scan data.
The Forest Farms of Kandy
A global analysis of forest garden farming systems, with a focus on Kandy, Sri Lanka, reveals their high productivity and sustainability as low-input, diversified agroforestry practices. These systems, prevalent across tropical regions, combine trees, palms, bushes, and vines while minimizing conventional crops or livestock. The study evaluates 30 socio-economic criteria to assess these farms' ecological and economic significance, linking them to broader agro-development and environmental challenges. Historical and archaeological evidence further highlights their role in the adoption of agricultural farming. This comprehensive evaluation provides persuasive insights into ancient agroforestry systems and their relevance today.
A fine start
George Keyt, a renowned painter celebrated for his sensual and spiritual works, was born in Kandy, Sri Lanka's historic hill station. His life, spanning the 20th century, paralleled the region's colonial history, culminating in its British conquest in 1815. Kandy, known for its scenic beauty and cultural heritage, stands out with its colonial architecture and proximity to tea plantations. The Temple of the Sacred Tooth, housing a relic of Lord Buddha, remains a significant draw, marked by an annual festival. This study explores Keyt's artistic journey and Kandy's historical significance, offering insights into the interplay between personal narrative and regional history.
Identification of Sources of Fine Particulate Matter in Kandy, Sri Lanka
Fine particulate matter (PM) in Kandy, Sri Lanka—a UNESCO World Heritage Site and major tourist destination—originates primarily from re-suspended soil, vehicular emissions, biomass burning, industrial sources, and aged sea salt. Researchers analyzed over 100 PM samples collected between 2012 and 2014 using a GENT stacked filter sampler and X-ray fluorescence spectrometry. Positive Matrix Factorization (PMF) identified five key source factors, revealing significant contributions from anthropogenic activities alongside natural soil resuspension. Black carbon measurements further supported the dominance of combustion-related sources in urban PM pollution.
A study of the correlation between dengue and weather in Kandy City, Sri Lanka (2003 -2012) and lessons learned
A strong correlation between dengue incidence and weather variables was identified in Kandy, Sri Lanka (2003–2012), with rainfall, temperature, humidity, and sunshine showing positive associations—particularly with a 5- to 7-week lag. Negative correlations were observed with wind run. The study used wavelet time series analysis and cross-correlation coefficients to quantify these relationships, revealing that dengue transmission is influenced by multiple environmental factors. These findings highlight the need for adaptive public health strategies in the context of climate change.
Re-invigorating the Spirit of Place of Kandy: Urban Design and City Planning Strategies
Urban development in Kandy, Sri Lanka, risks eroding its unique cultural essence and 'spirit of place'—a blend of Buddhist traditions, symbolic representations, and historic urban design. The study identifies key determinant factors for preserving this intangible yet vital aspect, proposing that traditional urban design principles and built form strategies can guide future planning. By re-evaluating these historical elements in a modern context, the research offers actionable insights to counteract the loss of experiential qualities caused by rapid, unplanned structural changes.
An Ecosystem Services Approach to Sustainable Livelihoods in the Homegardens of Kandy, Sri Lanka
Homegardens in Kandy, Sri Lanka, offer significant socio-ecological benefits that extend beyond economic gains, including resilience to shocks, food security, and biodiversity conservation. A study analyzing 31 households over a decade found that livelihood strategies centered around these agroforestry systems provide broader advantages at household, national, and global scales compared to commercial simplification or abandonment of cultivation. These gardens also serve cultural and aesthetic preferences, despite challenges like wild animal incursions and regulatory pressures. The research highlights overlooked feedbacks between ecosystem drivers and interventions, emphasizing the need for an ecosystem services approach to avoid unintended consequences and leverage stakeholder synergies.
Estimation of carbon stock in Kandyan Homegardens located in Kandy and Matale
Kandyan Homegardens in Sri Lanka's Kandy and Matale Districts sequester significant amounts of carbon, with potential to store up to 330.23 tons of CO₂ per hectare in Kandy and 381.27 tons per hectare in Matale. These agroforestry systems, covering 61,029 hectares in Kandy and 20,258 hectares in Matale, contribute substantially to global carbon mitigation efforts by locking away atmospheric CO₂ in biomass. The study, conducted through detailed vegetation surveys and destructive sampling of trees, identified dominant species and calculated aboveground carbon content and annual litterfall rates, revealing the gardens' role as effective natural carbon sinks. This research underscores the importance of Kandyan Homegardens in combating climate change by providing a scalable model for carbon sequestration.
Prevalence and Carrier Status of Leptospirosis in Smallholder Dairy Cattle and Peridomestic Rodents in Kandy, Sri Lanka
A high prevalence of leptospirosis was detected in smallholder dairy cattle (38.8% of farms) and peridomestic rodents (17.5%) in Kandy, Sri Lanka, with cattle identified as a significant reservoir for human transmission. The study used serological testing to detect antileptospiral antibodies and PCR to identify Leptospira flaB gene DNA in urine and kidney samples. Cattle were predominantly infected with serogroups Sejroe (73.9%) and Hebdomadis (26.1%), while rodents showed reactions to Javanica (61.5%) and Icterohaemorrhagiae (30.8%). The findings suggest cattle may pose a greater risk to agricultural communities than rodents, aligning with human leptospirosis patterns in the region.
Socioeconomic Implications of Water Pollution in an Urban Environment A Case Study in Meda Ela Catchment, Kandy, Sri Lanka
High levels of water pollution in Meda Ela, a tributary of the Mahaweli River in Kandy, Sri Lanka, pose significant socioeconomic challenges. The study reveals that unplanned waste disposal and indifference towards environmental practices contribute to severe pollution, leading to health risks, mosquito breeding grounds, and unpleasant odors. Despite 93% of the community having good educational backgrounds, they continue to dispose of solid and liquid wastes into the stream. This pollution not only affects local residents with flash floods and bad odors but also threatens the Mahaweli River, a primary drinking water source for Kandy city. The research recommends implementing a community-based management system to mitigate these impacts and improve water quality in the catchment.
Analysis of Public Choice on Environmental Health Management: The Case of Dengue Fever Control in Kandy District
A preference for improved cleaning and efficient water supply emerged as the most effective strategies for dengue control among residents of Kandy Municipality, Sri Lanka. This insight was derived from a choice experiment involving 4 environmental management attributes with varying levels, including public motivation through spot fines and willingness to pay. The study employed a multinomial logit model (MNL) to analyze public choices, revealing that while infrastructure provision is crucial, community-driven cleaning efforts and motivational strategies like larger fines significantly influence dengue control outcomes. Conducted in the high-risk Kandy District, this research highlights the importance of combining behavioral incentives with structural improvements to enhance public cooperation in environmental health management.
Distinctiveness of termite assemblages in two fragmented forest types in Hantane hills in the Kandy District of Sri Lanka
Research reveals distinct termite assemblages between natural and secondary forests in the Hantane hills, Sri Lanka. While nine species were recorded in secondary forest, only two—Ceylonitermellus hantanae and Dicuspiditermes incola—were exclusive to natural forest at higher elevations. Natural forest termites were exclusively true soil feeders, whereas secondary forest species were predominantly wood feeders, including eight fungus-growing types. The study highlights how elevation, climate, vegetation, ground cover, and human interference shape these differences, contributing to our understanding of biodiversity in fragmented tropical ecosystems.
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