Publications
A brief history of Singapore Botanic Gardens
Established in 1859, the Singapore Botanic Gardens has played a pivotal role in advancing botanical research on Southeast Asia's flora. This study traces its historical development and contributions to scientific knowledge, highlighting its enduring significance as a center for botanical exploration and conservation. The research approach combines historical documentation with an analysis of the gardens' evolution, offering insights into its impact on regional botany.
A Renaissance in the Tropics: The Rise of Botanical Art in Singapore
Botanical art in Singapore has experienced a significant renaissance, transitioning from colonial documentation to a contemporary cultural movement. This study highlights the evolving role of botanical illustration over two centuries, culminating in its renewed recognition through initiatives like the Botanical Art Gallery and the Botanical Art Society (Singapore). The research traces this evolution, emphasizing how local artists have driven a revival that bridges science and cultural heritage. By analyzing historical and contemporary practices, the study underscores the importance of botanical art in preserving biodiversity while fostering artistic expression.
Celebrating Singapore Botanic Gardens
A special issue of Curtis's Botanical Magazine highlights the significance of the Singapore Botanic Gardens, the only tropical botanic garden inscribed on UNESCO's World Heritage List. The publication features rare tropical plants, including species from the Dipterocarpaceae family, alongside detailed scientific accounts and botanical illustrations by the Botanical Art Society Singapore. This collaboration celebrates the Gardens' 2025 milestones, including its 10th anniversary as a UNESCO site, 150 years of the Singapore Herbarium, and 30 years of the National Orchid Garden. The 82-hectare site serves as a living collection of palms, orchids, cycads, and gingers, preserving heritage trees and primary rainforest while advancing botanical heritage.
Singapore Botanic Gardens Special Part
A special issue of Curtis's Botanical Magazine highlights the Singapore Botanic Gardens, showcasing its impressive biodiversity, conservation efforts, and botanical artistry. The publication features the Suppression-release Technique, an innovative method for managing tropical tree seedlings, demonstrating its potential to advance horticultural practices. This technique, combined with active research and conservation initiatives, underscores the Gardens' role in preserving native flora. The issue also celebrates the flourishing state of fine botanical art in Singapore, thanks to workshops led by Masumi Yamanaka, a regular artist for the Magazine. Orchestrated by Michele Rodda and edited by Timothy Utteridge, this special part was made possible through the generosity of the Singapore Botanic Gardens and contributions from numerous staff and artists.
Tree vitality assessment in lawn a and b of the Singapore Botanic Gardens
A comprehensive tree vitality assessment of Lawns A and B at the Singapore Botanic Gardens (SBG) reveals excellent overall health, with both the Tree Damage Index (TDI) and Visual Crown Rating (VCR) scoring 'very good' at 9. The study, employing the Forest Health Monitoring (FHM) method, identified dead branches as the most prevalent damage type (23%), followed by decay and broom damage. These findings underscore the effectiveness of current management practices while highlighting opportunities for enhancement through targeted interventions such as weeding, pruning, fertilization at the individual tree level, and thinning, mulching, and species enrichment at the plot level. This assessment provides actionable insights to further bolster the resilience and ecological vitality of this urban forest.
Avian functional diversity retained in a tropical rainforest fragment after more than 120 years of turnover
Despite significant species turnover over more than 120 years, a small tropical rainforest fragment within the UNESCO-listed Singapore Botanic Gardens has retained its avian functional diversity. This resilience was revealed through a comparison of historical records from 1898 with contemporary surveys conducted in 1998 and 2018–2021. The study found that while species composition shifted dramatically (50% dissimilarity), driven primarily by turnover rather than nestedness, both species richness and functional diversity remained stable. This suggests that small forest fragments can support novel but functionally equivalent bird communities, potentially due to functional redundancy. Such findings highlight the importance of habitat restoration adjacent to fragmented forests in preserving ecological functions.
Changes in tropical leafing behaviour with climate change over nine decades: A case study from the Singapore Botanic Gardens
Over nine decades, leaf flush intervals for tropical tree species at the Singapore Botanic Gardens have significantly shortened, coinciding with changes in rainfall patterns. The study, leveraging historical records from 1927–1939 and ongoing phenological monitoring since 2016, found that mean daily rainfall over 1–4 months prior to leaf flushing either negatively or positively influenced the probability of flushing for nine out of 23 species analyzed. Long-term rainfall data revealed February has become drier while May has grown wetter since the 1960s, suggesting more distinct dry and wet periods today. These shifts may impact plant-herbivore interactions, nutrient cycling, and ecosystem resilience. The research underscores the value of botanical gardens as sentinels for environmental change in tropical regions.
Flora of Singapore precursors, 47: The genus Phytocrene (Icacinaceae) in Singapore
A new record of Phytocrene oblonga Wall. (Icacinaceae) is documented for Singapore, expanding the known distribution of this species from a single historical collection in Nee Soon Swamp Forest to its current presence. This discovery complements the more widespread and frequently collected P. bracteata Wall., which is also cultivated at the Singapore Botanic Gardens. The study provides detailed typification, descriptions, an illustration of P. oblonga, and photographs for both species, along with a key to distinguish them. This contribution advances the understanding of Singapore's flora by clarifying taxonomic boundaries and distribution patterns within this genus.
Gigantochloa lako (Poaceae, Bambusoideae), a new combination for a horticulturally important bamboo species from Southeast Asia
Researchers reclassify Bambusa lako, a widely cultivated ornamental bamboo known as Timor black bamboo, into the genus Gigantochloa based on floral characteristics observed in a rare flowering specimen. The study, conducted at the Singapore Botanic Gardens, identified key reproductive traits—such as non-disarticulating rachilla segments and terminal vestigial florets—that align with Gigantochloa rather than Bambusa. This taxonomic adjustment clarifies the species' classification while maintaining its horticultural significance in Southeast Asia. The discovery underscores the importance of flowering material in bamboo taxonomy, bridging gaps left by initial descriptions lacking reproductive data.
The Princess Fantasy of Singapore: Shorter Histories and US Decline in Crazy Rich Asians
A symbolic analysis of the 'Dendrobium Barack and Michelle Obama,' a hybrid orchid gifted by Singapore to the U.S. during a 2016 state dinner, reveals its dual significance: representing both diplomatic relations and a reversal of traditional gender dynamics in East-West interactions. The orchid, bred at the Singapore Botanic Gardens, combines Hawaiian and Singaporean Dendrobium species, reflecting a heteronormative romantic narrative that feminizes the U.S. while masculinizing Singapore. This study decodes such 'orchid diplomacy'—a practice of gifting hybrid orchids to dignitaries—and its implications for soft power dynamics in international relations.
A Spiteful Campaign: Agriculture, Forests, and Administering the Environment in Imperial Singapore and Malaya
A study reveals that the establishment of bureaucratic structures for agriculture and forestry in Imperial Singapore and Malaya in the late 19th century prioritized capitalist interests over scientific principles, leading to significant environmental transformation. The research highlights how disputes between botanists and bureaucrats, though rooted in shared imperial goals, facilitated large-scale deforestation and plantation expansion, setting a precedent for environmental exploitation in Southeast Asia during the 20th century. The analysis draws on historical records and debates from the Singapore Botanic Gardens to illustrate how economic imperatives increasingly overshadowed scientific knowledge in shaping land use policies.
Memecylon acuminatissimum, a new record for Singapore
A rare tree species, Memecylon acuminatissimum Blume, has been documented for the first time in Singapore, with its presence confirmed exclusively at two locations within the Singapore Botanic Gardens: the Rain Forest and Chestnut Nature Park. This discovery expands the known flora of Singapore, contributing to the understanding of its biodiversity. The identification was made through field observations and taxonomic analysis, highlighting the significance of botanical gardens as repositories for diverse plant species.
Unravelling the identity of Sindora(Fabaceae, Detarioideae) trees in the historical landscapes of Singapore
A comprehensive survey of Sindora trees (Fabaceae, Detarioideae) in Singapore's historical landscapes reveals the presence of at least 26 mature individuals, with eight surviving across three key sites: Singapore Botanic Gardens, Fort Canning Park, and Changi Village Estate. Among these, five species or hybrids were identified, including a newly elucidated hybrid, Sindora × changiensis, which combines genetic material from S. coriacea and S. echinocalyx. The study also suggests that the iconic 'Changi Tree,' felled in 1942, was likely a S. echinocalyx based on herbarium evidence. This research underscores the conservation significance of these trees, highlighting their role in maintaining genetic diversity outside nature reserves and serving as living remnants of Singapore's botanical history.
Botanic Gardens
Botanic gardens serve as vital living repositories, conserving over 80,000 plant species globally through approximately 6.13 million accessions. These institutions play a crucial role in conservation, research, display, and education, with notable examples including the Acharya Jagadish Chandra Bose Indian Botanic Garden in India, the Royal Botanic Garden in Australia (the oldest in the country), and the Missouri Botanical Garden in the U.S., which houses around 51,000 live plants. Established in 1859 by the Ari–Horticultural Society, the Singapore Botanic Gardens exemplifies this global network of botanical gardens, contributing significantly to biodiversity preservation and scientific study.
Empire, cultivation, and the environment in Southeast Asia since 1500
This study reveals how imperialism in Southeast Asia, particularly through colonial botanic gardens like Buitenzorg and Singapore Botanic Gardens, drove the transformation of tropical environments to prioritize the cultivation and export of non-native flora for trade profits. The research highlights a historical pattern of environmental exploitation that persists today, tracing its roots back to the 16th century when spices attracted Western merchants and mercenaries. By analyzing the role of these gardens in identifying, acclimatizing, and increasing yield of exotic plants, the study underscores their pivotal function in shaping imperial economies and landscapes.
Thysananthus ciliaris (Lejeuneaceae, Marchantiophyta), a rare species new to Singapore from the Singapore Botanic Gardens
A rare liverwort species, Thysananthus ciliaris (Lejeuneaceae), has been discovered for the first time in Singapore, within the UNESCO-listed Singapore Botanic Gardens. This poorly documented Southeast Asian species was identified through careful taxonomic study, including the novel documentation of its oil bodies—a first for this species. The discovery expands the known geographical range of T. ciliaris and contributes to its conservation assessment at both global and national levels. Additionally, a lectotype designation strengthens the species' taxonomic clarity. This finding underscores the ecological significance of Singapore's botanical heritage and highlights the importance of systematic surveys in biodiversity hotspots.
Gardens, Parks and Green Reserves
Singapore's shift towards integrating nature into urban planning has revealed that mature, mixed-species vegetation better sustains biodiversity and aligns with the region's natural tropical conditions compared to mono-cultural landscapes. This study highlights how historical land exploitation depleted local flora and fauna but recent efforts, such as greening roadway verges and public parks, have restored more diverse ecosystems. The research emphasizes the importance of preserving both adult and juvenile life stages (e.g., butterflies and caterpillars) while managing risks like falling branches to ensure long-term ecological stability in a densely populated urban setting.
History of taxonomic research in Singapore
Singapore Botanic Gardens holds one of the highest plant collection densities globally, with its rich botanical history rooted in early expeditions and systematic research. The study highlights that the first potential research-oriented collections may date back to 1789, possibly by Archibald Menzies during his expedition aboard the Prince of Wales. Later, Christopher Smith's 1796 collections from Pulau Senang (then Barn Island) mark some of the earliest documented botanical efforts in Singapore. The research traces the evolution of plant taxonomy in Singapore through key collectors, their contributions, and seminal publications, emphasizing the importance of extensive fieldwork and herbarium collections in understanding regional plant diversity.
Sonic environment of Singapore Botanic Gardens and benchmarking with various urban gardens of the world
Urban parks and gardens often serve as sanctuaries from the noise of city life, providing relatively quiet spaces amidst high traffic and commercial activity. A study measured the sonic environment of Singapore Botanic Gardens and compared it with other renowned urban gardens globally, including Luxembourg Gardens in Paris, Real Jardín Botánico in Madrid, St James’s Park in London, Old Botanical Gardens Hamburg, and Carlton Gardens in Melbourne. The research found that the noise levels (Leq) in Singapore Botanic Gardens were comparable to those of other urban parks, with cicada sounds, human activities, and water features dominating its acoustic landscape. Additionally, the study analyzed the sound levels of various water features like mini waterfalls and fountains, contributing valuable insights into the sonic diversity of these green spaces.
The Gardens of Singapore
Singapore Botanic Gardens, the world's first tropical botanic garden to be designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 2015, stands out for its long-standing contributions to horticultural excellence, botanical research, and conservation. A study by Lindsay and Middleton (2018) highlights how this historic garden, founded in 1859, complements the more recent Gardens by the Bay (opened in 2012), which focuses on large-scale, visually stunning plant displays. Together, these gardens effectively engage the public in plant conservation efforts, fostering significant support for greening initiatives and the protection of natural areas in land-scarce Singapore. The research underscores their dual role in education and advocacy, demonstrating how contrasting approaches can synergize to achieve broad societal impact.
The Gardens' bulletin Singapore.. Vol. 70 (Supplement 1).
During the pre-World War II period, significant disruptions to botanical work at the Singapore Botanic Gardens occurred due to the secondment of senior staff for duties under the Departments of Food Control and Information. This shift resulted in a notable reduction in botanical activities, highlighting the impact of wartime conditions on scientific endeavors.
Exploring the effects of a ‘new’ listing of a UNESCO World Heritage Site: the case of Singapore Botanic Gardens
A UNESCO World Heritage Site (WHS) listing significantly influences visitor behavior, satisfaction, and revisit intentions. A study comparing pre- and post-listing data from the Singapore Botanic Gardens revealed that WHS designation alters the perceived importance of push-pull factors—motivations driving visitors to a site—and increases overall satisfaction and intent to return. The research highlights how global recognition can reshape tourism dynamics, offering actionable insights for marketing strategies. By analyzing visitor surveys before and after the 2015 listing, the study provides evidence that WHS status enhances perceived value and emotional connection to heritage sites.
Pollination of Ficus elastica: India rubber re-establishes sexual reproduction in Singapore
Research at Singapore Botanic Gardens reveals that Ficus elastica, or India rubber, had been sexually reproducing for over a decade after losing its pollinator wasp species, Platyscapa clavigera, around 70 years prior. The study identified P. clavigera as the specific pollinator, previously documented in Bogor Botanical Gardens, where F. elastica also showed evidence of natural reproduction. Despite Singapore's diverse native fig flora, F. elastica had remained unpollinated since its introduction in the 19th century, highlighting the extraordinary specificity and evolutionary stability of this plant-wasp interaction.
Assessment of measured and perceived microclimates within a tropical urban forest
A study of the Singapore Botanic Gardens reveals that urban greenery significantly affects both measured and perceived microclimates, with variations in land cover influencing thermal comfort. While humidity was universally deemed uncomfortable, most visitors reported feeling comfortable overall. The research used objective measurements—such as air temperature, vapor pressure, wind velocity, and globe temperatures—to derive thermal comfort indices (e.g., THI, PET, WBGT) across four distinct sites over two monsoonal seasons. Concurrent surveys of 1573 park users highlighted perceived discomfort due to heat, humidity, and low wind, with stronger correlations observed among more acclimated respondents. The findings underscore the importance of vegetation canopy characteristics in mitigating outdoor thermal stress in tropical urban forests.
The living versus the dead in Singapore: contesting the authoritarian tourist city
Singapore Botanic Gardens, recognized as the first World Heritage Site among botanical gardens in Asia and only the third globally after Kew Gardens (London) and Padua (Italy), stands out for its blend of native and non-native tropical flora, including a celebrated national orchid garden. This study examines the dual significance of the gardens—both as a symbol of Singapore's authoritarian urban development and a contested space for protest and resistance. The research explores how the gardens' designation as a World Heritage Site in 2015 intersected with Singapore's 50th anniversary celebrations, highlighting tensions between state-controlled tourism narratives and grassroots movements. By analyzing archival materials, public discourse, and spatial practices, the study reveals how the gardens serve as a microcosm of broader socio-political dynamics in an authoritarian tourist city.
The No Grandi Navi campaign: protests against cruise tourism in Venice
Grassroots activism in Singapore challenges state-led tourism narratives, as seen in the fight to preserve Bukit Brown Cemetery against the backdrop of UNESCO World Heritage-listed sites like the Singapore Botanic Gardens. The study highlights how local resistance emerges amid globalization and authoritarian urban policies, such as Prime Minister Lee Hsien Loong's 'City in a Garden' vision. Conceptualizing 'guerrilla tourism,' the research draws on Michel de Certeau’s spatial practice theory to frame pedestrian movement as an act of transgression against hegemonic urban landscapes. Fieldwork reveals activism flourishing despite state control, offering insights into subversive spatial practices in tourist cities.
The Gardens' bulletin Singapore.. Vol. 67(1).
During the period preceding the Japanese attack on Malaya, significant disruptions to botanical work at Singapore Botanic Gardens were observed. Most senior staff were temporarily reassigned to other duties under the Departments of Food Control and Information, leading to a marked reduction in botanical activities. This shift highlights the broader impact of political instability on scientific institutions, demonstrating how external events can alter research priorities and operational focus.
The Gardens' bulletin Singapore.. Vol. 67(2).
During the pre-World War II period, particularly prior to the Japanese attack on Malaya, the Singapore Botanic Gardens experienced significant disruptions in botanical work. Senior staff were seconded for duties under the Departments of Food Control and Information, leading to a marked reduction in botanical activities. This historical account highlights the impact of wartime conditions on scientific research and institutional operations at one of Southeast Asia's notable botanical institutions.
A Taste of Singapore: Singapore Food Writing and Culinary Tourism
Singapore's culinary tourism, despite its reliance on imported food, stands out globally for its integration of food writing and participatory experiences. This study reveals that Singapore actively promotes its cuisine through a multifaceted approach, including food festivals, cookery classes, and information-rich campaigns like 'Singapore Seasons' and 'Singapore Takeout.' Food writing in English plays a pivotal role, guiding both locals and tourists to unique Singaporean flavors, with resources such as guidebooks, mobile apps, and museum exhibits enhancing the culinary experience. The research highlights how taste is central to Singapore's cultural identity, with institutions like the National Museum of Singapore and Chinatown Heritage Centre using food to educate about heritage and diversity. This approach not only attracts tourists but also fosters pride among Singaporeans, positioning them as ambassadors of their cuisine.
Bidding for World Heritage: Singapore's Botanic Gardens
Singapore Botanic Gardens' bid for UNESCO World Heritage status reflects its multifaceted significance, serving as economic, sociocultural, and political capital. Unlike other nominations, tourism was not the primary driver; instead, Singapore emphasized broader national returns. The study examines how World Heritage designation is pursued strategically, with relative value assigned based on prevailing conditions in nominating countries. It explores the roles of Botanic Gardens—beyond conservation—and analyzes motivations behind the bid, offering insights into the complex interplay between heritage recognition and national identity.
The Gardens' bulletin Singapore.. Vol. 66(1).
During the pre-World War II period, the operational capacity of Singapore Botanic Gardens was significantly compromised due to the redirection of senior staff for duties under the Departments of Food Control and Information. This shift led to a marked reduction in botanical work, highlighting the impact of external political pressures on scientific activities at UNESCO-listed heritage sites.
The Gardens' bulletin Singapore.. Vol. 66(2).
During the period leading up to the Japanese attack on Malaya, the Singapore Botanic Gardens experienced significant disruptions due to the secondment of senior staff for duties under the Departments of Food Control and Information. This shift resulted in a marked reduction in botanical work, highlighting the vulnerability of scientific institutions during periods of political instability. The bulletin provides historical insight into how external pressures can impact long-term research efforts, particularly in botanical studies.
The Gardens' bulletin Singapore.. Vol. 65(1).
During the pre-World War II period, the operational capacity of Singapore Botanic Gardens was significantly compromised due to the secondment of senior staff for other governmental duties. This disruption led to a marked reduction in botanical work, highlighting the vulnerability of scientific institutions during periods of political instability. The study provides historical insight into how external pressures can impact long-term research and conservation efforts at UNESCO World Heritage Sites.
The Gardens' bulletin Singapore.. Vol. 65(2).
During the period leading up to the Japanese attack on Malaya, the Singapore Botanic Gardens experienced significant disruptions. Senior staff were frequently seconded for duties under the Departments of Food Control and Information, which led to a marked reduction in botanical work. This historical account highlights how external political events can profoundly impact scientific institutions, particularly those reliant on specialized expertise.
The unusual Gasteromycetes Lycogalopsis solmsii belongs to the gomphoid-phalloid group
A rare tropical fungus, Lycogalopsis solmsii, previously misclassified as belonging to the Lycoperdales or Agaricales, has been reclassified based on genetic analysis. The study, conducted at Singapore Botanic Gardens, isolated and sequenced DNA from a 30-year-old specimen, revealing its affiliation with the gomphoid-phalloid group of Gasteromycetes. This finding challenges existing taxonomic classifications and underscores the importance of molecular techniques in fungal systematics. The research utilized ribosomal DNA sequencing to compare the fungus against a broad sample of Basidiomycetes, providing novel insights into its phylogenetic placement.
The status of Cecropia (Urticaceae) introductions in Malesia: addressing the confusion
Research confirms that two species of Cecropia (C. peltata and C. pachystachya) have naturalized and become invasive in parts of Malesia, including Singapore, Java, Indonesia, and Peninsular Malaysia, challenging previous assumptions about the region's introduced flora. While C. peltata was first documented in 1862–1868 at Buitenzorg (Indonesia), its exact source remains uncertain. The study also debunks earlier claims about a third species, C. palmata, which is not extant in Malesia. Using historical records and botanical documentation, the authors clarify the status of these invasive plants, providing critical insights for conservation efforts.
The study of larger basidiomycetes, especially polypores, in the Malesian region and the role of the Singapore Botanic Gardens
A comprehensive survey of larger basidiomycetes, particularly polypores, across the Malesian region reveals significant biodiversity and ecological insights. The study highlights the Singapore Botanic Gardens as a critical hub for fungal research, emphasizing its role in preserving and documenting this diverse group of fungi. Researchers employed extensive field sampling, taxonomic identification, and phylogenetic analysis to map species distribution and assess their conservation status. Key findings underscore the importance of polypores in tropical ecosystems, with implications for biodiversity conservation and mycological studies.
Congratulations to the Singapore Botanic Garden Sesquicentennial 2009
A landmark celebration of the Singapore Botanic Gardens' 150th anniversary (2009) highlights its significance as a UNESCO World Heritage Site and a global center for botanical research. The publication emphasizes the gardens' historical importance, scientific contributions, and conservation efforts over a century and a half. It underscores the site's role in biodiversity preservation, horticultural innovation, and educational outreach, while also acknowledging challenges in maintaining its legacy amid urban development. The document reflects on the gardens' evolution from colonial-era beginnings to its present status as a symbol of Singapore's natural heritage.
Ex Situ Orchid Conservation - A Case Study from the Singapore Botanic Gardens
Singapore Botanic Gardens' orchid conservation program has successfully re-introduced five native orchid species, including Grammatophyllum speciosum and Bulbophyllum vaginatum, demonstrating effective ex situ conservation strategies. The study highlights the potential of cryo-seed banking for long-term germplasm preservation, with promising results achieved for multiple endangered species such as Cymbidium finlaysonianum and Dendrobium crumenatum. By monitoring existing populations and exploring innovative conservation techniques, the program aims to restore native orchid diversity in Singapore's managed habitats. A dedicated area at the National Orchid Garden showcases this biodiversity, serving both conservation and educational purposes.
Occurrence of leaf rust of canna in Singapore caused by Puccinia thaliae
A first recorded occurrence of leaf rust disease on canna plants in Singapore, caused by the fungus Puccinia thaliae, has been documented. The study identified distinct orange lesions on infected leaves, which release spores and lead to plant decline. Morphological analysis confirmed the pathogen as P. thaliae, with urediniospores measuring 36.63 ± 1.63 μm × 26.88 ± 0.88 μm, characterized by thick, echinulate walls. Koch’s postulates were satisfied through controlled inoculation, confirming the pathogen's role in disease development. The rust has previously been reported from Hawaii, India, and South Africa but was undocumented in Singapore until this study. The research highlights the potential impact of P. thaliae on ornamental canna plants, which are widely used in landscaping.
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