Publications
Chinchero as Tourism Hub and Green Corridor as a Social Integrator in Cusco Peru 2023
A proposed urban green corridor in Chinchero, Cusco, Peru, offers a solution to integrate social and ecological dimensions amid rising tourism pressures. This design addresses challenges like infrastructure gaps, gentrification, and uncontrolled urban growth by creating seven interconnected sectors along the Piuray lagoon, blending public spaces with cultural, sports, and recreational facilities. The corridor aims to foster social cohesion and territorial belonging while balancing environmental, archaeological, and tourism development. Digital tools such as Blender and AutoCAD were employed to analyze topography, climate, and biodiversity, underpinning the proposal's feasibility.
Design of a Green Corridor and the Revitalization of the Huatanay River, City of Cuzco, Peru—2024
A green corridor design for Cuzco, Peru, demonstrates significant ecological energy efficiency by leveraging natural resources to generate 13 kWh/day of energy through biodigesters, with 70% of the area dedicated to green spaces and 30% to public areas. This approach optimizes the revitalization of the Huatanay River by restoring its course, reforesting its banks, and creating recreational zones, thereby enhancing biodiversity while addressing urban expansion's environmental impact. The study utilized a four-stage methodology involving literature analysis, environmental data assessment (using tools like Climate Consultant and SIGRID), project implementation, and comparative discussion with existing literature. This design serves as a model for sustainable urban development in UNESCO World Heritage Sites.
Green Corridors and Social Connectivity with a Sustainable Approach in the City of Cuzco in Peru
A proposed green corridor design for the City of Cuzco, Peru, aims to serve as an ecological lung, addressing uncontrolled urban development and a shortage of green areas that negatively impact quality of life. The study highlights the importance of balanced resource management and social organization in sustainable urban planning. Using methods such as literature review, urban analysis, and climate analysis supported by digital tools, the proposal includes 69.96% green areas for recreation, biolakes (3.18%) for environmental quality, a botanical zone (18.14%) with diverse plant species, a convention area (9.7%) for community activities, and a cultural zone (0.98%) for artistic exhibitions. This multifunctional approach seeks to counteract urban expansion, environmental degradation, and social alienation while promoting climate regulation and biodiversity. The absence of such strategies could compromise development and quality of life in Cuzco.
Assessment of Present and Future Water Security under Anthropogenic and Climate Changes Using WEAP Model in the Vilcanota-Urubamba Catchment, Cusco, Perú
A critical gap between water availability and demand emerges by 2050 in the Vilcanota-Urubamba (VUB) catchment, Cusco, Peru, due to climate change and socio-economic pressures. Despite projected increases in water supply under RCP 4.5 and RCP 8.5 scenarios, unmet demand rises sharply—reaching 477 hm³/year by 2099 (RCP 4.5) and 446 hm³/year (RCP 8.5). Strategic management, such as reducing population growth and improving irrigation efficiency, can slash this deficit by up to 50% in all sub-basins. The study used the WEAP model, calibrated with Pisac hydrometric data (1987–2016), to simulate current (2010–2016) and future water security under varying scenarios. While present-day demand is met, long-term projections reveal uneven distribution of resources, underscoring the urgency of adaptive water governance in UNESCO-listed Cuzco.
Disorders in Peru.-March to Cuzco.-Encounter with the Natives.—Challcuchima Burnt.-Arrival in Cuzco.—Description of the City.-Treasure Found There. (1533-1534.)
The death of Atahuallpa, the Inca sovereign, marked a pivotal shift in Peruvian history, signaling the end of the Inca dynasty and the establishment of Spanish dominance. This study examines the political and social repercussions of Atahuallpa's execution, highlighting how his demise disrupted the stability of the Inca state and legitimized foreign rule. The research delves into primary historical accounts from 1533-1534, including Prescott's observations on the march to Cuzco, encounters with natives, and the discovery of treasure, providing a detailed narrative of this transformative period. By analyzing these firsthand descriptions, the study offers insights into the collapse of Inca authority and the transition to Spanish colonial rule.
Holocene Earthquakes on the Tambomachay Fault near Cusco, Central Andes
Research reveals that the Tambomachay Fault near Cusco, Peru, has experienced multiple Holocene earthquakes with significant seismic activity. Analysis of fault scarps and moraine crests indicates a mean throw of 4.3 ± 0.4 meters, with cosmogenic surface-exposure dating suggesting a Holocene-average slip rate of 0.3 ± 0.1 mm/yr. Trench excavations combined with radiocarbon dating identified three surface-rupturing earthquakes occurring between 8.5 and 0.9 ka, all predating Inca times. These events likely had moment magnitudes of Mw 6.4-6.9, posing a substantial seismic hazard to modern-day Cusco, which has a population of 500,000.
Interpretation Center for the Revaluation of Flora and Fauna in Cusco, Perú
A proposed architectural design for an Interpretation Center in Cusco, Peru, aims to revalue the region's endemic flora and fauna through bioclimatic strategies and sustainable urban planning. The project addresses critical threats such as deforestation, water pollution, and invasive species by integrating green spaces covering 51% of the total area, which will enhance carbon dioxide absorption and restore ecological networks like the Huantanay River. Researchers employed climatic analysis, flora-fauna characterization, and software tools (AutoCAD, Revit, 3D Sun-path) to develop a design rooted in Inca worldview principles and aligned with Sustainable Development Goals. The feasibility of this approach was validated by comparing it to successful international projects like the Sydney Water Restoration Project and Ataria Nature Interpretation Center.
Review: Cuzco: Incas, Spaniards, and the Making of a Colonial City
Michael J. Schreffler's book, Cuzco: Incas, Spaniards, and the Making of a Colonial City, challenges conventional narratives by focusing on the intellectual structuring of Cuzco rather than its physical transformation during the colonial period. Unlike typical architectural studies, this work delves into how Spanish invaders and settlers conceptualized Cuzco's layout and significance before major construction began, revealing the cognitive and symbolic dimensions of urban planning in the early colonial era. Schreffler's approach combines historical analysis with spatial interpretation, using ground plans and schematic city maps to illustrate the contrast between Inca and Spanish urban visions. The book highlights the interplay of indigenous and colonial ideologies in shaping Cuzco's identity, offering a nuanced perspective on its evolution as a UNESCO World Heritage Site.
Trombe walls with porous medium insertion and their influence on thermal comfort in flats in Cusco, Peru
A modified Trombe wall with porous medium insertion significantly improves thermal comfort in flats in Cusco, Peru, reaching an average Predicted Mean Vote (PMV) of +0.10 and an indoor temperature of 21.90°C during the coldest months. This innovation outperforms traditional Trombe walls and non-Trombe scenarios, offering an efficient, eco-sustainable heating solution for high Andean regions prone to frosts. The study used computational fluid dynamics (CFD) simulations to analyze three flat prototypes (55 m², 75 m², and 95 m²) over six months, demonstrating the potential of this passive heating system to mitigate cold-related discomfort in residential buildings.
Archaeological heritage ‘on-the-rise’: detecting emerging tourist attractions in Peru using machine learning and geotagged photographs
A novel approach using machine learning and geotagged photographs from Flickr identifies emerging archaeological tourist attractions in Peru, many of which are unmonitored due to their open-access nature. This study highlights 'on-the-rise' sites accessible from five Peruvian cities, offering a scalable method for global application. By analyzing large-scale internet photo datasets, researchers detected patterns that could predict future over-tourism risks, such as pollution and destruction, at these lesser-known heritage locations. The findings underscore the need for targeted conservation efforts and sustainable tourism planning to mitigate potential damage as tourist itineraries expand beyond traditional sites like those in Cuzco.
Characterization of starches obtained from several native potato varieties grown in Cusco (Peru)
Research on ten native potato varieties from Cusco, Peru, reveals subtle but significant variations in starch properties, highlighting their potential as nonconventional starch sources for the food industry. The study analyzed physicochemical, functional, morphological, and structural characteristics of extracted starches, finding protein content (0.1% to 0.44%), amylose levels (23.42% to 35.5%), and phosphorus content (0.07 to 0.10%). Starch granules exhibited smooth surfaces with ellipsoidal or spherical shapes, while particle size distributions were bimodal or multimodal. Gelatinization temperatures ranged from 57.4°C to 71.1°C, with enthalpies between 15.4 and 17.1 J/g. Pasting properties showed peak viscosities of 12,970 to 16,970 mPa⋅s and setback viscosities of 968 to 2498 mPa⋅s. No significant correlation was found between amylose content and thermal stability. These findings underscore the unique functional characteristics of Cusco's native potato starches, offering valuable insights for industrial applications.
Corporate social responsibility in luxury hotels in Cusco (Peru) to benefit indigenous communities
Luxury hotels in Cusco, Peru, are increasingly engaging in corporate social responsibility (CSR) actions to benefit indigenous Quechua communities, though challenges persist. While there is a growing commitment among hotel representatives to support local communities through education, training, health projects, and fair-trade supplier partnerships, a key hurdle remains the time required to overcome sociocultural barriers and build strong relationships with community members. The study highlights diverse CSR approaches, including philanthropic activities, demonstrating how the hospitality sector can contribute to societal betterment while emphasizing the need for more consistent and structured efforts in this area.
Cusco: Profile of an Andean city
Cusco, a UNESCO World Heritage Site nestled in the South American Andes, exemplifies the complex interplay between tourism-driven urbanization and cultural preservation. The study reveals that while tourism has transformed Cusco into Peru's 'tourist capital,' it also paradoxically threatens its economic foundation by fueling exclusive real-estate development. This demand for exclusivity and aesthetic mountain landscapes, driven by global urbanization, leads to fragmented leisure landscapes that both include and exclude, challenging local policies to reconcile dichotomies of authenticity, safety, and sustainability.
Cuzco: Incas, Spaniards, and the Making of a Colonial City
Cuzco's transformation from an Inca capital to a Spanish colonial city between 1534 and 1560 is meticulously reconstructed through firsthand accounts, official documents, and archaeological evidence. Unlike previous studies that focused on post-earthquake architecture, this research illuminates the city's transition during its formative years, revealing how Spanish rule reshaped Inca structures like the House of the Sun (Coricancha) into symbolic colonial landmarks, such as the Dominican convent. The study leverages primary sources from chroniclers like Juan de Betanzos and Inca Garcilaso de la Vega to trace urban changes, including the 1536–37 siege by Manco Inca and subsequent civil wars. While it lacks detailed topographical plans or distinctions between existing and hypothetical Inca walls, its rigorous analysis bridges art history and literary history, offering a nuanced account of Cuzco's layered past.
Risk factors for acute mountain sickness in travellers to Cusco, Peru: coca leaves, obesity and sex
Two out of five travelers to Cusco, Peru, experienced acute mountain sickness (AMS) within the first 48 hours at 3,350 meters altitude. Obesity and female sex significantly increased the risk, while acetazolamide prophylaxis reduced it. A cohort study of 142 young, healthy Spanish-language students found that traditional coca leaf tea consumption did not mitigate AMS risk. The research used enrollment questionnaires to assess preventive behaviors and symptoms, applying the Lake Louise Scoring System for diagnosis. Findings highlight obesity and sex as key risk factors while validating acetazolamide's efficacy in AMS prevention.
Use of medicinal plants for COVID-19 prevention and respiratory symptom treatment during the pandemic in Cusco, Peru: A cross-sectional survey
During the COVID-19 pandemic, a significant portion of the population in Cusco, Peru, turned to medicinal plants for both prevention and treatment of respiratory symptoms. A cross-sectional survey involving 1,747 respondents revealed that 80.2% used plants preventively, while 71% used them therapeutically. Key plants included eucalyptus, ginger, spiked pepper, garlic, and chamomile, with their usage significantly influenced by factors such as age, education level, and personal or familial history of COVID-19. Notably, individuals with higher education levels were less likely to use medicinal plants for treatment, while older adults and those with a family member or friend infected with COVID-19 were more inclined to use them preventively. This study highlights the cultural and practical significance of traditional medicine in response to pandemic-related health challenges.
A Lost City and its Time Machine: Vision and Affect in Rail Travel to Machu Picchu
Rail travel to Machu Picchu functions as a 'time machine,' transporting tourists back in time and reinforcing the myth of lost cities, discovery, and dispossession. This study reveals how rail journeys capitalize on historic and cultural imaginings of Machu Picchu, transforming visitors into explorers through vision and affect. The research combines archival analysis with ethnographic fieldwork conducted in Cuzco and at Machu Picchu to demonstrate the integral role of transportation in shaping the tourist experience at this UNESCO World Heritage Site.
Local Trade And Pottery Production In The Cusco Region Before And During The Wari Expansion
A study of the Cusco region reveals that local pottery production and trade persisted largely unaffected by the Wari state expansion, challenging the assumption that early expansionist states overwhelm pre-existing social networks. Researchers analyzed distribution data from regional surveys and excavation findings at the village site of Ak’awillay to reconstruct the circulation of a locally-produced polychrome pottery style called Muyu Urqu before and after Wari's arrival. The findings contribute to understanding local responses to Tiwanaku and Wari expansionism during the Middle Horizon (600–1000 CE) in the South-Central Andes, highlighting the resilience of local traditions despite external influences.
Los santuarios religiosos en la economía regional andina (Cusco)
Religious sanctuaries in the Andean region of Cusco, Peru, play a dual role as centers of devotion and integral components of traditional economic systems. These sanctuaries, along with their associated festivals and religious calendars, form what researchers term 'economic-religious complexes,' which are deeply rooted in both pre-Hispanic and colonial social structures. The study reveals that these complexes shape the geography of production and exchange among local communities, illustrating a historical interplay between religious practice and economic activity. By analyzing the spatial and functional relationships between sanctuaries, festivals, and territorial organization, the research demonstrates how sacred spaces and pilgrimage movements have sustained and structured regional economies for centuries.
LXXVII. About how Soto and Gabriel de Rojas arrived in Cuzco, and how Pizarro left that city and the things that he did until he descended to the plains after abandoning the city of Jauja
Historical accounts detail the arrival of Soto and Gabriel de Rojas in Cuzco, alongside Francisco Pizarro's departure from the city and subsequent actions. The narrative captures critical moments during the Spanish conquest of Peru, including Pizarro's strategic retreat after abandoning Jauja, his descent to the plains, and the broader implications for the region's political and social landscape. This chapter provides a vivid portrayal of the complexities and challenges faced by the conquistadors, offering insights into their tactics, alliances, and conflicts with local populations. Published in 'The Discovery and Conquest of Peru,' this account remains a key source for understanding the early phases of Spanish colonization in South America.
LXXXII. About how Don Francisco Pizarro sent Verdugo to Cuzco with powers for his brother Juan Pizarro to have the lieutenancy of the city, and about the discussions that took place there, and what else happened
A historical account details the strategic maneuver by Don Francisco Pizarro, who dispatched Verdugo to Cuzco with authority to grant his brother Juan Pizarro the lieutenancy of the city. This action marked a pivotal moment in the consolidation of Spanish control over Cuzco during the early colonial period. The narrative captures the political dynamics and discussions that unfolded within the city, offering insights into the power struggles and governance strategies employed by the Pizarro brothers. Published as part of 'The Discovery and Conquest of Peru,' this excerpt provides a firsthand perspective on the complexities of establishing Spanish rule in the region.
LXXXIII. About how Don Francisco Pizarro returned to the City of the Kings, then left to go to the city of Cuzco when he learned of the things that were happening there
A historical analysis reveals the strategic decisions of Francisco Pizarro, who returned to the City of the Kings (Lima) before proceeding to Cuzco upon learning of significant developments there. This account, extracted from 'The Discovery and Conquest of Peru,' provides insights into Pizarro's navigational choices during his conquest of the Inca Empire. The study employs a narrative approach, drawing from primary historical sources to reconstruct Pizarro's movements and their implications for the conquest's trajectory. It underscores the importance of real-time information in shaping military strategy during this pivotal period.
Of Guinea Pigs and Tourists: Sustainable Development, Sustainable Tourism, and “Local Food” in Cusco, Peru
Sustainable tourism can effectively address economic disparities and promote cultural and ecological sustainability without creating dependency, as demonstrated by a grassroots model in Cusco, Peru. The study highlights Sierra Productiva's cuy (guinea pig) farming operations, which foster mutually beneficial relationships between indigenous communities and the tourism sector. By building capacity at individual and community levels, this approach offers a framework for equitable sustainable development that can be replicated in other tourist destinations.
Relationship between soil characteristics and altitude with the sensory quality of coffee grown under agroforestry systems in Cusco, Peru
Research reveals that altitude and soil characteristics significantly influence the sensory quality of coffee grown under agroforestry systems in Cusco, Peru. Specifically, higher altitudes correlate with increased acidity and aluminum concentration in soils, while levels of available phosphorus, calcium, and exchangeable potassium remain low, except for changeable magnesium, which is high. The study, conducted across 56 farms ranging from 1312 to 1910 meters above sea level, found that 50% of the samples qualified as 'Very Good' specialty coffee, scoring between 80 and 84 on sensory evaluations using the SCAA methodology. Key attributes like sweetness, balance, aroma, and flavor improved with altitude, highlighting the positive impact of these factors on coffee quality. The findings underscore the potential for economic and social benefits for small producers by leveraging altitude and soil characteristics to enhance coffee sensory quality.
Revelations of ancient head shape: Cranial modification in the Cuzco region of Peru, Early Horizon to Inca Imperial Period
Analysis of cranial vault modification (CVM) in the Cuzco region of Peru reveals distinct temporal patterns that illuminate sociopolitical transformations from the Early Horizon to the Inca Imperial Period. The study found that tabular CVM dominated early samples (900 BC–AD 600), while an influx of unmodified crania during the Middle Horizon (AD 600–1000) correlated with Wari occupation. Annular CVM emerged later (AD 1000–1438), suggesting migration, possibly from Lake Titicaca. During Inca rule, modification rates were higher in rural sites than urban ones, indicating state-coerced resettlement of ethnic groups while Inca elites in Cuzco city avoided modification as a marker of identity. The research combines morphological analysis of 419 individuals from 10 sites with archaeological and ethnohistoric data to trace migration, settlement, and the impact of imperial expansion on Andean ethnic landscapes.
Towards Urban Archaeo-Geophysics in Peru. The Case Study of Plaza de Armas in Cusco
Ground-penetrating radar (GPR) successfully mapped buried archaeological features and utility pipes beneath Cusco’s Plaza de Armas, demonstrating its potential as a non-invasive tool for urban heritage management. By integrating historical knowledge with nearby excavation records, researchers developed a model to interpret GPR reflections, revealing subsurface structures that could guide conservation efforts. This approach offers new insights into the city's layered history and supports sustainable urban planning in UNESCO-listed sites.
Vuestra atención, por favor ‘your attention, please’. Some remarks on the usage and history of plural vuestro/a in Cusco Spanish (Peru)
Research on the usage of the possessive form 'vuestro/a' in Cusco Spanish reveals its dual function: as a formulaic phrase (e.g., 'vuestra atención, por favor') and a strategic tool to contrast actions or states between plural addressees and the speaker's group. This phenomenon, previously overlooked in American Spanish, is analyzed through three hypotheses linking it to colonial and early post-independence Spanish influences, with consideration of potential notional transfer from Quechua to Spanish. The study contextualizes this linguistic development within Cusqueno society, highlighting its role in shaping an idiosyncratic mestizo identity.
Structural Survey and Empirical Seismic Vulnerability Assessment of Dwellings in the Historical Centre of Cusco, Peru
A significant portion of Cusco's historic center could see reduced seismic vulnerability through targeted retrofitting interventions. This finding emerges from an empirical study that assessed the seismic risk of dwellings in the area using data collected from an extensive in-situ survey. Researchers adapted a methodology previously used for Italian historic centers to account for Cusco's unique structural typologies. The study, conducted by a team including institutions from Italy and Peru, utilized GIS mapping to visualize building statistics and derive fragility curves. These curves were then employed to evaluate the potential benefits of large-scale retrofitting strategies, offering actionable insights for preserving this culturally significant site.
Surviving Conquest: From Huacas to Cofradías in 17th Century Cuzco
A parallel culture thrived in Cuzco during the 17th century, blending Inka traditions with colonial Catholicism through cofradías (confraternities). This study reveals that Huaca worship persisted despite Spanish conquest efforts, facilitated by native elites who actively participated in religious festivities like Corpus Christi. Archival research and multidisciplinary analysis demonstrate how Inka practices were subtly integrated into colonial structures, creating a 'Shadow Empire' that endured until the 18th century. The study challenges the narrative of Inka eradication, showing instead a complementary coexistence that allowed Andean culture to adapt and survive.
The ‘volunteer tourist gaze’: commercial volunteer tourists’ interactions with, and perceptions of, the host community in Cusco, Peru
Commercial volunteer tourism in Cusco, Peru, perpetuates neo-colonial discourses by emphasizing the divide between volunteers from developed nations and host communities. Despite active engagement and multi-sensory experiences, interactions are limited by language barriers and do little to foster cross-cultural understanding. The study, based on interviews with volunteer tourists and participant observation, reveals that these dynamics reinforce a 'volunteer tourist gaze' characterized by commodification and neo-colonial tendencies.
Affirmative biopolitics: Social and vocational education for Quechua girls in the postcolonial “affectsphere” of Cusco, Peru
A grassroots educational center in Cusco, Peru, mediates the lives of Quechua-speaking girls through postcolonial biopolitical governance, revealing how they navigate rural-to-urban mobility, labor precarity, and tourism-driven professionalization. The study employs an affirmative biopolitical framework to analyze affective responses to education, social care, and vocational training, highlighting contested terrains of youth in urban spaces. This approach contributes to understanding the production of aid, protection, and alternative childhoods in marginalized contexts.
Archaeological Investigations at Yunkaray (Cuzco, Peru): Reconstructing the Rise and Fall of an Early Inca Rival (A.D. 1050–1450)
Archaeological investigations at Yunkaray, located near Cuzco, Peru, reveal the rise and fall of a powerful pre-Inca polity that remained independent despite its proximity to the Inca Empire. Household excavations indicate that this large village was inhabited by a population with modest social distinctions, relying on local cultural identities rather than Inca influence. The study suggests that Yunkaray, the capital of the Ayarmaca group, maintained distinct political and cultural ties outside Inca control from approximately A.D. 1050 to 1450. This research sheds light on the complex interactions between pre-Inca societies and the emerging Inca Empire during a pivotal period in Andean history.
Astronomical observations in the Inca Temple of Coricancha (Cusco)? A critical review of the hypothesis
A critical reassessment of the Coricancha temple's alleged astronomical function challenges the long-standing hypothesis that its architecture facilitated solar observations tied to a 328-day Inca calendar. While early Spanish accounts and structural analyses hinted at solar reflections on sacred effigies, such as the Sun figure (Punchao), this study's meticulous measurements and historical review cast doubt on the temple's role in formal astronomical observation. The research suggests that while Coricancha's design may incorporate subtle solar alignments, its primary purpose was likely religious rather than calendrical. This work refines our understanding of Inca architectural symbolism and the limits of archaeological evidence for astronomical claims.
Cuzco
Archaeological and ethnohistorical research reveals the layered history of Cuzco, from its early Killke occupation to its transformation under Inca ruler Pachacuti. The study highlights the city's urban development, including iconic structures like the Coricancha, usnu complexes in Haucaypata and Limaqpampa plazas, and royal palaces, while also analyzing residential canchas and the walled enclosure of Hatuncancha, home to the acllahuasi. By integrating chronicle descriptions, artifact distributions, ritual offerings, and burial practices, the research reconstructs Cuzco's complex social and ritual landscape, offering insights into its function as both an administrative and ceremonial center.
Shifting Panoramas: Contested Visions of Cuzco’s 1650 Earthquake
A large painted panorama of Cuzco, Peru, reveals that the city's 1650 earthquake is depicted not as a singular disaster but through contested religious narratives. The study finds that while the Spanish-influenced Virgin Mary is traditionally credited with miraculous intervention, the painting subtly elevates a lesser-known life-size crucifix as the true protector. This dual imagery challenges the dominant colonial narrative, offering Cuzqueños an alternative historical memory. The research analyzes the inscription and pictorial elements of the panorama to uncover this subversive framing, demonstrating how visual art can encode resistance against hegemonic stories.
The Ritual Landscape of the Inca
Research reveals that the Inca Empire's ritual landscape, centered around Cuzco, was organized into a highly complex system of 42 ceques (ritual pathways) radiating from the Temple of the Sun. At the time of European invasion in 1532 CE, this network included over 328 shrines (huacas), both natural and artificial, such as caves, boulders, springs, and man-made structures like fountains and canals. Each shrine required prayers and offerings, with maintenance responsibilities distributed among kin groups along each ceque. This system represents the most intricate ritual network identified in the ancient New World, offering profound insights into Inca cosmology and social organization.
Una institución española en el Nuevo Mundo: el cabildo de Cuzco en el siglo XVI
The Spanish Crown's establishment of cabildos, or city councils, in the New World during the 16th century provided a unique opportunity to study the transplantation and adaptation of political institutions. In Cuzco, Peru, Francisco Pizarro installed one such cabildo in 1534, staffed by members of Spain's urban elite who had previously held government positions in Castile. This institution served as both a representation of Spanish power and a model for local governance in America. The study reveals how these cabildos were instrumental in maintaining political and administrative continuity from the Iberian Peninsula to the colonies, allowing Spain to exert greater control over its new territories without facing resistance from established local powers. By analyzing archival records and historical documents, researchers Domínguez-Guerrero and López Villalba examine the influence of Spanish traditions on American governance and trace the evolution of early local governments in the region.
A Picturesque Modernity in 1920s Peru and Argentina: Ruins, Cuzco and Americanism in the Photographic Reportages ofVariedadesandPlus Ultra
Photographic reportages on Cuzco, Peru, published in the 1920s by Variedades and Plus Ultra, reveal a dual discourse of modernity that challenged Western narratives. These images, blending aesthetic and documentary value, contributed to an indigenista proposal for national identity while familiarizing urban audiences with regional traditions through tourism and the picturesque. Comparative analysis with Argentine publications shows this trend was part of a broader Americanist movement shaping perceptions of tradition and modernization in the 1920s.
Case–Case Analysis Using 7 Years of Travelers' Diarrhea Surveillance Data: Preventive and Travel Medicine Applications in Cusco, Peru
Travelers to Cusco, Peru, are at significant risk of severe travelers' diarrhea (TD), with norovirus (NV) being the leading cause, responsible for over 14% of cases and confining most infected individuals to bed. A case–case analysis of seven years of surveillance data revealed that NV, enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli, and ciprofloxacin-resistant Campylobacter were the most prevalent pathogens among adult travelers from high-income countries. Notably, consumption of the local beverage 'chicha' was linked to Cryptosporidium infection. The study highlights the need for destination-specific preventive interventions, such as vaccines targeting these pathogens, to mitigate TD burden in travelers.
El Otro Cusco: Choquequirao
The Inka society, structured hierarchically and nucleated, emphasized the significance of origins both historically and spatially. Central to their worldview was the concept of 'Cusco' as a symbolic and territorial starting point, embodied in systems like ceques (ritual lines) and the Qhapaq Qocha ceremony, which celebrated this foundational idea. While etymological analyses exist, the study focuses on the Inka's conceptual understanding of Cusco, suggesting that their 'New Cuscos' were not merely urban replicas but extensions of an ideal spatial axis. This insight challenges conventional interpretations by prioritizing the societal and symbolic dimensions over architectural ones.
Good Neighbors and Lost Cities
During the Good Neighbor era (1930s–1940s), Machu Picchu emerged as both a global tourist destination and a national symbol of Peru, reflecting a convergence of US foreign policy goals, Peruvian state ambitions, and local regional aspirations. The study reveals how transnational collaboration—driven by hemispheric solidarity efforts—positioned the Inca archaeological site at Cuzco as a strategic cultural asset, blending international diplomacy with local identity politics. While US initiatives sought to strengthen Latin American alliances, Peruvian and Cuzco-based actors leveraged tourism development to reinforce regional pride and political narratives, demonstrating how global and local forces shaped the rise of Machu Picchu.
How Gonzalo Pizarro arrived at the city of Cuzco, and how it was resolved by the Spaniards to reconnoitre the force that was at Ur cos, and what happened
Historical analysis reveals that Gonzalo Pizarro's arrival in Cuzco and the subsequent Spanish strategic discussions exposed tensions between returning conquistadors and their leaders. The study, based on primary accounts by Pedro de Cieza de León, highlights how Hernando Pizarro convened key figures to assess Almagro's return from Chile, sparking debates over honor, exploration motives, and potential losses. The research approach combines narrative reconstruction with critical examination of colonial records, offering insights into the political and military dynamics of 16th-century Peru during the War of Las Salinas.
How Hernando Pizarro continued to approach the city of Cuzco , and how Almagro was very infirm , and how he held a review of his forces
A historical analysis reveals the strategic caution and determination of Hernando Pizarro as he approached the city of Cuzco during the Peruvian Civil Wars. The study, based on primary sources including accounts by Pedro de Cieza de León, highlights how Pizarro's forces avoided detection by rival scouts while advancing, despite Almagro's reported illness or death. This careful maneuvering underscores the tactical complexity and high stakes of the conflict, where Pizarro's ambition to defeat Almagro in battle was balanced against the need for secrecy and precision in military operations. The research provides a detailed narrative of this pivotal moment, offering insights into the dynamics of 16th-century Spanish conquest strategies.
How Hernando Pizarro left the city of Cuzco with a large company, and went to the camp of Pedro De CANDíA, and how he ordered retribution to be inflicted on Captain Mesa.
Historical analysis reveals the strategic maneuvering and political intrigue of Hernando Pizarro following the execution of Adelantado Don Diego de Almagro. The study, drawn from Pedro de Cieza de León's account of the Civil Wars in Peru, highlights how Pizarro strategically moved with a large force to the camp of Pedro de Candia, ostensibly to prevent opposition from Chilean forces but likely to avoid detection of his plans by potential adversaries like Captain Mesa and Villagran. His use of a small, seemingly recreational escort—carrying falcons—served as a tactical deception to conceal his true intentions, illustrating the complexities of power dynamics and military strategy during this period.
How Hernando Pizarro sent a letter by Pero Gallego to the Captain Alonzo de Alvarado, and how Pedro de Lerma sent letters by Palomino to the city of Cuzco, and how the Adelantado Don Diego de Almagro sent Diego de Alvarado and Gomez de Alvarado and others to the bridge of Abancay to notify the Captain Alvarado, who had already arrived there; and what else happened
The historical account reveals the strategic use of disguised messengers during the Peruvian civil wars, highlighting Pero Gallego's covert journey from Cuzco to warn Captain Alonzo de Alvarado. Gallego, disguised as an Indian with a sling and hollow cane concealing Pizarro's letter, demonstrated the effectiveness of stealth communication in high-stakes political conflicts. The study, drawn from Pedro de Cieza de León’s Civil Wars in Peru, underscores the ingenuity of messaging tactics during this turbulent period, offering insights into 16th-century Andean warfare and diplomacy.
How Hernando Pizarro, Lieutenantfor the Governor, the Captain Gonzalo Pizarro and the others under arrest, were taken to Almagro, who would not see them, and ordered them to be taken as prisoners to the house of Diego Nuñez de Mercado; and how Almagro was received in the city of Cuzco as governor
A historical account reveals the tense aftermath of the capture of Spanish captains Hernando and Gonzalo Pizarro during the Civil Wars in Peru. Almagro, the newly appointed governor, refused to meet the prisoners, citing their role in fracturing his friendship with Governor Francisco Pizarro. The captives were briefly held at Diego de Mercado's residence before being transferred to the Temple of the Sun, where they remained under guard for an extended period. This narrative sheds light on the political intricacies and power struggles during this turbulent era, offering insights into the dynamics of colonial governance in Cuzco.
How the Adelantado Don Diego de Almagro, having taken counsel concerning what should be done, sent Lorenzo de Aldana and Vasco de Guevara as messengers to Hernando Pizarro who, with his followers, had come forth from the city of Cuzco; and what passed between them
A historical account reveals the strategic negotiations and diplomatic tensions surrounding Diego de Almagro's quest to claim governance of Cuzco, a pivotal city in Peru. The text describes his calculated approach—avoiding conflict while asserting his legitimacy as Governor through secret correspondence and messengers—to secure political recognition without resorting to violence. This narrative underscores the importance of diplomacy in colonial power struggles, illustrating how personal relationships (e.g., with Hernando Pizarro) influenced outcomes. The study draws from primary sources, including Cieza de León's chronicles, to reconstruct this pivotal moment in Peruvian history.
How the Alcalde Alonso Palomino and Don Antonio de Rivera arrived at the city of Cuzco, and what happened.
Historical analysis reveals how the arrival of Alcalde Alonso Palomino and Don Antonio de Rivera in Cuzco during the Spanish conquest disrupted local stability, exacerbating tensions among indigenous groups and colonizers. The study highlights Vaca de Castro's strategic response to the Ordinances from Juan de Cáceres, demonstrating diplomatic restraint amid escalating conflict. By examining primary sources, including accounts by Pedro de Cieza de León, this research reconstructs the political dynamics of the period, offering insights into the social and governance challenges faced during the transition from Inca rule to Spanish colonization in Peru.
How the captain Gonzalo Pizarro arrived at the city of Cuzco, accompanied by some followers, but had not laid aside his rebellious design of occupying the Realm; and of what else happened.
A historical analysis of Captain Gonzalo Pizarro's rebellion against the Spanish Crown in Cuzco, Peru, reveals how persistent incitement by followers and flatterers led to widespread conflict. The study highlights the destructive consequences of ambition, vengeance, and social unrest, drawing parallels between colonial Peru and broader historical patterns where leaders were manipulated into calamities. Inscribed on a stone memorial in Cuzco, Pizarro's rebellion is documented as a pivotal moment that forever branded him as a traitor, illustrating the fragility of governance in turbulent environments.
How the Governor Don Francisco Pizarro arrived at the fortress of Huarcu, where he received news of the entry of Don Diego de Almagro into the city of Cuzco, and of his brothers having been made prisoners, and of his feelings on receiving the news
Historical accounts reveal the emotional and strategic impact of Governor Don Francisco Pizarro's journey to the fortress of Huarcu, where he received critical news about his brothers' captivity during a prolonged siege in Cuzco. The narrative underscores the psychological toll on Pizarro, marked by anxiety and fear for his kin, alongside his military strategy of rapid marches through arid terrains. This firsthand account, drawn from Pedro de Cieza de León's chronicles, provides a vivid portrayal of the tensions and decisions shaping the Civil Wars in Peru during the 16th century.
How the Governor Don Francisco Pizarro left the city of the Kings with more than 400 Spaniards marching by the coast road, on his way to the city of Cuzco
A critical historical analysis reveals how Governor Don Francisco Pizarro, facing a widespread indigenous uprising against Spanish rule in Peru during the 16th century, strategically mobilized over 400 Spaniards from the city of the Kings (Lima) to reinforce and retake Cuzco. This reinforcement, led by Captains Diego de Fuenmayor and Pedro de Vergara, arrived from Española (Hispaniola), where local authorities had raised a relief force in response to reports of Pizarro's precarious situation. The expedition not only lifted the siege on Cuzco but also marked a pivotal moment in Pizarro's campaign to subjugate indigenous populations along the coast road, consolidating Spanish control over key regions. The account, drawn from Pedro de Cieza de León’s Civil Wars in Peru, provides a detailed narrative of this military maneuver, highlighting its logistical and strategic significance during the turbulent early colonial period.
A new species of Psychrophrynella (Amphibia, Anura, Craugastoridae) from the humid montane forests of Cusco, eastern slopes of the Peruvian Andes
Researchers have identified a new species of the frog genus Psychrophrynella in the humid montane forests of Cusco, Peru. This discovery, described from specimens collected between 2,670 and 3,165 meters elevation near Japu, distinguishes the species through unique morphological traits—such as a tarsal tubercle and yellow ventral coloration—and a multi-note advertisement call, setting it apart from related species like P. bagrecito and P. usurpator. The frog exhibits a snout-vent length of 16.1–24.1 mm in males and 23.3–27.7 mm in females, aligning with the genus's high-altitude Andean distribution pattern. Like other recently described Psychrophrynella species, this find likely reflects a restricted geographic range, underscoring the region's biodiversity significance.
Élites regionales en el Perú en un contexto de boom fiscal: Arequipa, Cusco, Piura y San Martín (2000-2013)
Between 2000 and 2013, Peru experienced significant fiscal growth, which reshaped regional elites in Arequipa, Cusco, Piura, and San Martín. This study reveals that economic booms altered the composition of political and business elites, with notable shifts in their organization and influence. While political elites remained dominant, business elites gained prominence due to increased economic activity, particularly in extractive industries. The research compares how these elites interacted across regions, highlighting disparities in their capacity to contribute to regional development. Methodologically, the study combines conceptual analysis of elite behavior with empirical data on economic and institutional changes during this period.
Flora y Fauna de Cuatro Bosques de Polylepis (Rosaceae) en la Cordillera del Vilcanota (Cusco, Peru).
High-altitude Polylepis forests in the Cordillera del Vilcanota (Peru) harbor unique biodiversity, including specialist species and high endemism levels. However, these ecosystems face severe anthropogenic threats such as deforestation for fuel and construction, along with overgrazing, making them one of the most vulnerable habitats in the Andes. A recent study by Servat et al. (2016) addresses critical knowledge gaps by documenting flora and fauna across four understudied Polylepis forest localities: Sacsamonte, Yanacocha, Pumahuanca, and Queuñamonte. The research catalogs 144 angiosperm species, 68 bird species (including nine with conservation priority), seven reptiles/amphibians (one of which is rare), and eight mammal species. This contribution to the 'Proyecto Queñual' aims to inform targeted conservation strategies for these fragile Andean ecosystems.
Moral assemblages of volunteer tourism development in Cusco, Peru
Volunteer tourism in Cusco, Peru, is shaped by complex moral landscapes formed through interactions among human and non-human actors. This study introduces assemblage theory as a framework to analyze volunteer tourism development, revealing it as a dynamic, relational process influenced by geopolitical discourses, historical contexts, and socio-economic factors. By treating volunteer tourism as an assemblage, the research provides deeper insights into its unequal and mobile nature, challenging conventional planning approaches. The findings underscore the need for more inclusive strategies in tourism policy that account for these multifaceted dynamics.
Southeast Inka Frontiers
The Inka Empire's control over vast, distant frontier regions, particularly the Southeast frontier, was marked by complex socioeconomic transformations that reshaped indigenous populations like the Yampara and Guaraní. This study reveals how the encounter between the Inka—one of the largest pre-Columbian empires—and these fierce tribes led to significant political and economic shifts. By integrating cross-regional analysis and diverse lines of evidence, researchers uncover the mechanics of Inka imperial expansion and its profound impacts on local societies. The findings highlight the adaptability and resilience of frontier populations in response to Inka governance, offering new insights into the empire's reach and influence.
Sustentabilidad Ambiental en Fincas Cafetaleras Despues de un Proceso de Certificación Orgánica en la Convencion (Cusco, Perú)
A study on the sustainability of coffee farms in La Convención, Cusco, Peru, found that organic certification significantly improved environmental and economic sustainability compared to conventional production. The research, involving 61 farms over seven years, used a multi-criteria analysis method to assess sustainability indicators. Organic farming increased the General Environmental Indicator (IA) from 2.08 to 2.71, with 91.1% of farms becoming environmentally sustainable post-certification, up from 66.6%. Productivity rose by 29.04%, and coffee quality improved from 80.64 to 82.56 points. The Economic Sustainability Indicator (IK) also increased from 1.61 to 2.06, highlighting the benefits of organic certification for both environmental and economic outcomes.
Tourism-based development in Cusco, Peru: comparing national discourses with local realities
A study comparing national-level development discourses in Peru with local perceptions in four rural communities of the Valle Sagrado, Cusco, reveals significant overlap between global development models and local views. However, it also highlights frustrations with tourism practices, exposing tensions with neoliberal economism and foreign influence. The research used Rapid Qualitative Inquiry (RQI) to analyze data from interviews, field notes, and documents collected over six months in 2013. Findings suggest that integrating local perspectives and interests into policy-making could enhance the outcomes of tourism-based development strategies.
Treatment Failure after Multiple Courses of Triclabendazole among Patients with Fascioliasis in Cusco, Peru: A Case Series
A concerning trend of triclabendazole treatment failure emerges in the Andes, as documented by seven cases of human fascioliasis in Cusco, Peru. Despite multiple doses (10 mg/kg per dose), patients continued to excrete Fasciola eggs, suggesting potential resistance development. The study employed rapid sedimentation and Kato Katz tests post-treatment to confirm egg persistence. These findings challenge the long-standing efficacy of triclabendazole, a cornerstone in fascioliasis management, and raise alarms for public health interventions in endemic regions like Cusco.
A new species of Noblella (Amphibia, Anura, Craugastoridae) from the humid montane forests of Cusco, Peru
Researchers have identified a new species of Noblella frog in the humid montane forests of Cusco, Peru. This discovery was made through specimen collection at elevations between 2330-2370 meters near Santa Ana, in the province of La Convención. The new species is distinguished by its broad, irregular white mark on a black chest and belly, along with unique morphological traits such as an absent tympanic membrane, small tubercles on the upper eyelid and dorsum, absence of tarsal tubercles or folds, non-expanded digit tips, no circumferential grooves on digits, and distinct dark brown facial mask and lateral band extending from the snout to the inguinal region. The species exhibits a snout-to-vent length of 15.6 mm (male) and 17.6 mm (female), similar to other high-elevation Noblella species, which likely have restricted geographic distributions.
Ancient South Asian cities in their regions
The Inka administrative system, centered in Cuzco, was characterized by a hierarchical organization that relied on descendants of past rulers and a sophisticated record-keeping method using knotted cords (khipus). This study reveals how the empire, known as Tawantinsuyu ('the four parts intimately bound together'), maintained control through provincial and local administrative structures. By analyzing khipu records from the Khipu Database, supported by computational tools developed at Harvard University, researchers uncovered insights into the empire's governance, providing a rare glimpse into its complex bureaucracy. The findings highlight Cuzco's role as the political and cultural heart of the Inka Empire, underscoring its significance as a UNESCO World Heritage Site.
Dental fluorosis and fluoride in Willoq and Cuzco: assumptions and reality in Peru
A low prevalence of dental fluorosis (DF) in the indigenous community of Willoq and higher levels in Cuzco, Peru, contradicts previous predictions based on fluoride (F) concentrations. The study found DF rates of 7% in Willoq and 29% in Cuzco, with corresponding Community Fluorosis Index values of 0.03 ± 0.13 and 0.60 ± 1.14, respectively. Water F levels were 0.285 mg/L in Willoq and 0.151 mg/L in Cuzco, while Arequipa's water had a concentration of 0.193 mg/L—all below the threshold for DF development. These findings challenge global DF predictions, suggesting unaccounted F sources or inaccuracies in current models. The study used Dean’s Index to assess DF and EPA method 340.2 to measure F concentrations, providing critical data for refining public health interventions.
Fame of Thrones: Seats, Sights, and Sanctity among the Inka
The Throne of the Inka, or Sapaqurinka, exemplifies how materiality and location fused to elevate the Inka ruler into a divine overseer. Carved from rock atop Cuzco’s promontory, this sacred seat enabled the ruler to merge with the landscape, embodying both impermanent flesh and petrous permanence. The study analyzes its form, placement, and carving techniques, revealing how these elements facilitated the ruler's role as a living extension of the sacred topography.
In the name of the tourist : landscape, heritage, and social change in Chinchero
Tourism-driven development in Chinchero, Peru, has triggered significant social and cultural transformations, particularly concerning landscape heritage and indigenous identity. The study reveals how the reconversion of Inca ruins into an archaeological park and the commercialization of textile production have led to processes of re-territorialization and social exclusion. Additionally, the proposed New International Airport of Cuzco project, aimed at boosting tourism, has deepened community divisions and raised unrealistic expectations for progress. This ethnographic research highlights the complex interplay between modernization, indigenous traditions, and environmental conflict, underscoring the need to address the broader implications of rapid tourist development on local communities.
Understanding Wari State Expansion: A “Bottom-Up” Approach at the Village of Ak'Awillay, Cusco, Peru
Research at the village of Ak'Awillay in Cusco, Peru, reveals that Wari state expansion during the Middle Horizon (A.D. 600-1000) had minimal impact on local communities, contrary to traditional 'top-down' models suggesting direct imperial control. Excavations indicate most changes occurred before Wari colonization, with their presence primarily offering new exchange opportunities for local leaders rather than altering daily life significantly. This 'bottom-up' approach provides a nuanced perspective on how ancient states interacted with peripheral regions, suggesting limited influence beyond immediate colonial areas.
Brokering aid through tourism: The contradictory roles of volunteer coordinators in Cusco, Peru
Volunteer tourism coordinators in Cusco, Peru, play a pivotal role in mediating between international sending agencies, volunteer tourists, and aid recipients. This study highlights their unique position as gatekeepers, revealing the complex tensions they navigate—balancing commercial interests with philanthropic goals. Through qualitative analysis of five coordinators' practices and narratives, the research underscores their struggles to reconcile moral dilemmas such as 'making a difference,' profit, representation, and personal purpose. These findings illuminate broader contradictions within the volunteer tourism sector, offering insights into the ethical and practical challenges faced by this understudied group.
Cusco: Urbanism and Archaeology in the Inka World
Ian Farrington's comprehensive study, 'Cusco: Urbanism and Archaeology in the Inka World,' sheds light on the spatial organization and urban life of Cuzco during the Inca period (AD 1000–1534). The book leverages archaeological data and historical descriptions to reconstruct the city's original physiognomy, which was significantly altered by Spanish remodels. Farrington's analysis covers the city's planning, including canalizing rivers and terracing land, as well as its urban components like the kancha and Inca linear measuring system. While the study provides rich insights into Inca Cuzco, it faces challenges such as inconsistent cartography and a lack of basic general references, which could hinder its accessibility for less familiar readers.
Cuzco and Lima
Clements R. Markham's 1856 account of his travels to Cuzco, Peru, provides a significant historical and scientific contribution by documenting the mid-19th century European fascination with Latin America and its ancient civilizations. His observations in Cuzco, then largely unknown in Europe, shed light on the Inca civilization through detailed descriptions of ruins and cultural insights. Additionally, Markham's introduction to the cinchona plant during his stay laid the groundwork for his later work introducing quinine to India, as outlined in his 1862 publication 'Travels in Peru and India.' This account reflects the era's exploratory zeal while offering valuable ethnographic and botanical insights.
Indigenous Intellectuals
This edited volume reveals the significant but often overlooked contributions of Indigenous intellectuals during the colonial era, demonstrating their pivotal role in shaping knowledge, law, and history across Andean cities like Cuzco. It challenges traditional narratives by highlighting how Indigenous scholars, trained in both European and native traditions, mediated between colonial institutions and Indigenous communities through genealogy, cartography, and archival practices. The research employs a multidisciplinary approach, analyzing primary sources such as genealogical records, legal texts, and manuscripts to uncover the complex networks of Indigenous intellectuals who preserved and adapted their cultural heritage while navigating colonial structures.
Informe de las posibles capacochas del asentamiento arqueológico de Choquepujio, Cusco, Perú
Archaeological evidence from the site of Choquepujio, Cusco, Peru, reveals a probable Inca 'capacocha' ritual involving child sacrifices. The study identifies two monumental temple complexes (A and B) from the Late Intermediate Period, with Group A containing burials of children accompanied by extensive offerings. These findings align with historical accounts of capacocha rituals and share striking parallels with high-altitude Andean sacrificial practices. Radiocarbon dating and artifact analysis support the conclusion that these sacrifices occurred during Inca control over the Lucre basin, suggesting continued sacred significance despite shifts in political power.
Occupational injuries among children and adolescents in Cusco Province: a cross-sectional study
A significant prevalence of occupational injuries among child laborers (10–17 years old) was identified in Cusco Province, with 3% reporting severe injuries such as fractures or amputations. Falls and car accidents were the most common causes, while high daily income emerged as a risk factor for falls and physical violence at work. Children born in Cusco and those employed in the service sector faced elevated risks of car accident-related injuries. The study, conducted through cross-sectional interviews with 375 public night school students (91.5% response rate), highlights the vulnerability of child workers to severe occupational hazards despite economic gains.
Regional Archaeology in the Inca Heartland
A comprehensive regional survey of the Cuzco region, spanning from 2000 to 2008, reveals critical insights into the settlement patterns, subsistence practices, and social organization of pre-Columbian Andean societies. This study, covering approximately 1200 square kilometers north and west of Cuzco, employed systematic methodologies to reconstruct the transformation of landscapes from early hunter-gatherer occupations to the complex agricultural systems under Inca rule. The research also examines how Spanish colonial practices reshaped this imperial landscape into a peripheral one. By integrating data across all pre-Columbian periods, the study significantly advances the archaeological understanding of Andean prehistory, particularly in the Inca heartland.
City Indians in Spain’s American Empire: Urban Indigenous Society in Colonial Mesoamerica and Andean South America, 1530-1810
Urban indigenous societies in colonial Latin America were not merely marginalized but actively shaped and sustained colonial cities through agency, resilience, and adaptation. Contrary to the long-held view that urbanization led to the decline of indigenous communities, this anthology demonstrates their pivotal role in maintaining social structures, navigating complex ethnic relations, and preserving cultural practices despite Spanish dominance. The study employs a comparative ethnohistorical approach, analyzing case studies from Mexico, Guatemala, Peru, and beyond, to illustrate how indigenous groups—such as the Ayarmaca-Pumamarca in Cuzco or Nahua communities in Tenochtitlan—redefined ethnic identities, maintained rural connections, and challenged colonial authority through institutions like cabildos. Mobility, property rights, and social cohesion emerged as key strategies for survival and influence, revealing urban Indians as integral, though overlooked, contributors to the colonial world.
Empleo de plantas medicinales en usuarios de dos hospitales referenciales del Cusco, Perú
A significant majority of patients at two major hospitals in Cusco, Peru, reported using medicinal plants, with 83.2% having used them at some point and 75.3% within the last month. Notably, 85.7% expressed a desire for physicians to prescribe these plants during consultations. The study, conducted between August and September 2011, employed a non-probabilistic sampling method involving 250 participants and identified digestive, urinary, and respiratory issues as the most common conditions treated with medicinal plants. This cross-sectional research highlights the widespread integration of traditional medicine alongside conventional healthcare in Cusco, suggesting a potential for greater collaboration between modern medical systems and traditional practices.
Gateway and garden: a kind of tourism in Bali
Heritage sites, such as the UNESCO-listed City of Cuzco in Peru, are shaped by powerful discourses and practices that activate collective imagination. This study highlights how cinematic representations, historical fiction, and visual traditions contribute to the creation of a potent heritage iconography, exemplified by the theatrically staged revival of the ancient Inca rite Inti Raymi. The research approach involves analyzing these interacting elements to understand their role in shaping heritage narratives.
Regional perspectives on Wari state influence in Cusco, Peru (c. AD 600–1000)
Archaeological research in the Cusco region of Peru reveals that the Wari state's influence (c. AD 600–1000) was limited and discontinuous, challenging assumptions about its extensive control. Using systematic surveys and GIS analysis, the study mapped settlement patterns and ceramic distributions within 70 km of Pikillacta, a key administrative center. Findings indicate that while Wari cultural, economic, and political influence was present, it was not uniform across the region, mirroring colonization practices of other early states.
‘Nobody wants to sound like a provinciano’: The recession of unstressed vowel devoicing in the Spanish of Cusco, Perú1
Younger residents of Cusco, Perú, associate unstressed vowel devoicing—a distinctive feature of Andean Spanish—almost exclusively with the speech of rural migrants (provincianos), despite its persistence in local dialects. Acoustic analysis reveals that many Cusqueñans maintain devoicing rates comparable to those of rural migrants, contradicting their negative perceptions. This shift is linked to post-1950 earthquake exposure to non-devoicing Spanish dialects and heightened contact with Quechua-accented speech, alongside entrenched local ideologies devaluing rural Andean identity.
Acute Mountain Sickness Impact Among Travelers to Cusco, Peru
Nearly half of travelers to Cusco, Peru (3,400 m), experience acute mountain sickness (AMS), with 17% suffering severe symptoms that disrupt their travel plans. A cross-sectional study of 991 tourists found that acetazolamide significantly reduced AMS risk, yet it was rarely prescribed or used, while coca leaf products—commonly employed for prevention—increased AMS frequency. Most travelers flew directly from sea level and had suboptimal pre-travel preparation, with only a quarter receiving medical advice. Older adults, those with recent high-altitude exposure, or those visiting lower-altitude cities were less likely to develop AMS. These findings highlight the need for better pre-travel education and targeted preventive strategies.
Conflicts Over Natural Resources and Activation of Indigenous Identity in Cusco, Peru
Research reveals that indigenous identity is activated during conflicts over natural resources in Cusco, Peru, particularly when communities perceive political opportunities to support their demands. The study found that both Amazon and Andean groups self-identify as indigenous in such contexts, reflecting an awareness of external alliances. This activation is influenced by a favorable Political Opportunity Structure (POS), which enhances the likelihood of indigenous discourses gaining traction. The analysis, based on official declarations, interviews, and press archives from 2008, underscores the importance of contextual factors in shaping political identities during social conflicts.
Dieta de murciélagos filostómidos del valle de Kosñipata, San Pedro, Cusco - Perú
Research reveals that phyllostomid bats in the montane forests of Peru's Kosñipata Valley primarily consume fruits and nectar-pollen, with a strong preference for plants like Piper, Cecropia, and Abutilon. These species exhibit specialized diets, with minimal overlap between Carollia brevicauda, C. perspicillata, and Sturnira erythromos. The study analyzed fecal samples to assess pollen and seed presence, identifying key plant resources and evaluating dietary niche breadth and overlap among six bat species.
Displacement‐Based Fragility Curves for Seismic Assessment of Adobe Buildings in Cusco, Peru
Fragility curves for seismic assessment of adobe buildings in Cusco, Peru, reveal that response spectrum shape significantly influences the probability of limit state exceedance when expressed in terms of peak ground acceleration (PGA), but not when based on spectral displacement. This finding underscores the importance of considering both demand and capacity metrics in seismic vulnerability studies. The research employed a mechanics-based procedure to analyze in-plane and out-of-plane wall failure mechanisms, evaluating displacement capacity and vibration period for different damage states. By comparing capacity with seismic demand derived from multiple response spectra, the study generated fragility curves that were validated against data from the 2007 Peruvian earthquake, providing critical insights for improving seismic risk assessment in historic adobe structures like those in Cusco.
Farmers typology and crops sustainability in Alto Urubamba, La Convencion – Cusco
Research in Alto Urubamba, Peru, identifies three distinct farmer typologies based on resource management efficiency and economic logic. Among eight tropical crops evaluated for sustainability—using soil quality and crop health indicators—tea (6.65) and mango (6.50) ranked highest, followed by coffee and cocoa (both 6.25), while papaya scored below the sustainability threshold at 4.60. The study surveyed 106 farmers, applying descriptive statistics and multivariate analysis to classify typologies, then assessed crop sustainability through participatory evaluations on 24 farms.
Trade in Andean Condor Vulture gryphus feathers and body parts in the city of Cusco and the Sacred Valley, Cusco region, Peru
An open and illegal trade of Andean Condor (Vulture gryphus) feathers and body parts thrives in the tourist markets of Cusco and the Sacred Valley, Peru. Researchers documented 26 establishments selling condor feathers, priced from 5 to 160 soles, with handicrafts featuring up to six feathers sold for as much as 650 soles. A whole condor was even offered for 2,500 soles. The trade, driven by demand for alternative healing, shamanic ceremonies, and souvenirs, is fueled by hunters in the Cordillera Vilcabamba and Vilcanota, with Calca serving as a hub for handicraft production. Despite existing legislation, enforcement is absent, exacerbating threats to an already endangered species. Urgent action from Peruvian authorities is needed to halt this activity under international conventions.
Whose Paradise? Itinerant Street Vendors' Individual and Collective Practices of Political Agency in the Tourist Streets of Cusco, Peru
Itinerant street vendors in Cusco, Peru, employ fragmented and often individualized political strategies to navigate intensified government control while sustaining their livelihoods in tourism. Unlike traditional studies that focus solely on collective resistance or organized protest, this research reveals that vendors' less explicit forms of agency—both individual and collective—are crucial for their persistence in tourist streets. These practices not only help vendors challenge repressive policies but also explain disparities in their ability to benefit from the global tourism industry. The study uses empirical analysis of Cusco's vendor dynamics to highlight the nuanced ways marginalized groups assert agency in high-traffic urban spaces.
Account of the Fables and Rites of the Incas
Cristóbal de Molina's 'Account of the Fables and Rites of the Incas' provides an invaluable firsthand account of Inca religious beliefs, practices, and rituals, compiled shortly after the Spanish conquest. Leveraging his proficiency in Quechua, Molina interviewed elderly indigenous men in Cuzco, capturing detailed descriptions of creation myths, deities (huacas), and significant ceremonies, including monthly rites, birth rituals, female initiations, marriages, the Capacocha ritual, and the Taqui Ongoy millennial movement—a response to Spanish domination. This English translation, accompanied by scholarly commentary, offers a rare glimpse into pre-Columbian Andean spirituality and resistance, preserving cultural knowledge from the late Inca period.
Death and Conversion in the Andes: Lima and Cuzco, 1532 – 1670
Death and Conversion in the Andes reveals that the Christianization of Andean populations was not merely a process of violent imposition but involved a complex, rational engagement with indigenous culture. The study, focusing on Lima and Cuzco from 1532 to 1670, demonstrates how conquistadors adapted to Andean death rituals and spatial practices, integrating them into Catholic frameworks. By analyzing wills, testaments, archaeological evidence, and anthropological data, the research challenges the stereotypical image of conquistadors as solely destructive figures, highlighting instead a dynamic process of cultural assimilation and reorganization. This innovative approach provides new insights into the intersection of religion, space, and identity in colonial Peru.
El Trienio Liberal en el Virreinato peruano: los ayuntamientos constitucionales de Arequipa, Cusco y Huamanga, 1820-1824
During the Liberal Triennium (1820–1824), the Virreinato del Perú briefly reinstated representative government under the 1812 Constitution, despite its late loyalty to the Crown. This study reveals that virrey La Serna governed constitutionally in three key cities—Arequipa, Cusco, and Huamanga—demonstrating both institutional continuity and change between Spanish ayuntamientos and Peruvian municipalities. Analysis of electoral processes, council compositions, and administrative roles shows that some Spanish-era actors and structures persisted, even as new political dynamics emerged. The research reconstructs local governance through archival documentation, offering insights into the transition from colonial to early post-independence municipal administration.
Invaded city
Land invasions in Cuzco, Peru, have significantly shaped urban development through spontaneous occupancy of expropriated hacienda lands. These informal settlements gradually became regulated, demonstrating how administrative planning often reacts to existing land takeovers rather than preempting them. Residents invest substantial effort into building homes and neighborhoods, despite fluctuating policies and bureaucratic challenges. The study reveals that state permissiveness toward illegal occupancy is a precarious yet sought-after outcome, not guaranteed. This approach contrasts with traditional agrarian reform strategies but shares similar dynamics of mobilization and land acquisition.
Language and Society in Early Colonial Peru
Historical research on the relationship between language and society in early colonial Peru reveals significant gaps, particularly regarding Andean languages post-Spanish Conquest. This study addresses these gaps by integrating linguistic contributions with ethnohistorical data to identify speakers of Andean languages and reconstruct their contexts. It examines two key cases: the spread of Quechua along Peru's central coast, including interactions in the Lima valley, and the boundaries of Quechua in the Cuzco region, influenced by Inca resettlement policies that persisted briefly under Spanish rule. Additionally, it explores how indigenous populations in Lima and Cuzco adapted to Spanish linguistic dominance. The research combines published sources with archival data, offering a nuanced understanding of linguistic and societal dynamics during this transitional period.
Making Indigenous Archives: The Quilcaycamayoc of Colonial Cuzco
Research challenges the traditional notion of the 'lettered city,' revealing indigenous Andean notaries (escribanos de cabildo) as pivotal figures in colonial Cuzco's archival landscape. These native writers, who documented records in Spanish under Viceroy Francisco de Toledo's ordinances, acted as intermediaries between indigenous communities and Spanish colonial bureaucracy, often serving dual roles that could both support or undermine their communities' interests. The study examines the archives created by these notaries, suggesting a possible connection to quipucamayoc, who managed Andean quipu records. By analyzing evidence from the Cuzco region, the research redefines the 'lettered city' as an inclusive urban phenomenon that extends beyond elite Spaniards.
New Viceroyalty, New Nation, New Empire: A Transnational Imaginary for Peruvian Independence
A transnational vision for Peruvian independence, rooted in the Revolution of 1814–15 and centered in Cuzco, proposed a new empire stretching from Lima to the River Plate. This 'revolution of the patria' aimed not only for independence but also to sever all ties with the Spanish monarchy, positioning Cuzco as its capital due to its antiquity and strategic location. While this movement has been largely overlooked in broader Latin American independence narratives, it is highlighted here as a significant yet understudied chapter in the region's struggle for sovereignty.
Riqueza, uso y origen de plantas medicinales expendidas en los mercados de la ciudad del Cusco
A study of medicinal plants sold in nine markets—five major and four smaller zonal ones—in the city of Cusco, Peru, revealed a rich diversity of 152 species across 45 families. The most abundant were Asteraceae (36 species) and Lamiaceae (12), with Muehlenbeckia volcanica ('Mullaca'), Perezia virens ('Valeriana'), Matricaria recutita ('Manzanilla'), and Hypochaeris taraxacoides ('Pilli pilli') being the most frequently traded. The findings indicate that 75% of these plants are herbaceous, with 81% using the entire plant part, primarily prepared as infusions or 'mates calientes.' The study also identified that 83% of the species are native, predominantly from the Andean region surrounding Cusco, highlighting a strong connection to ancient Quechua knowledge. This research underscores the significant role of traditional medicinal practices in contemporary markets, mirroring patterns observed in other Andean regions like Bolivia and Ecuador.
Rooted Cosmopolitanism: Spaces of Multiplicity in Cusco, Peru
Rooted cosmopolitanism emerges as a dynamic framework for understanding global interactions in Cusco, Peru, challenging the binary global/local dichotomy. This study identifies three interrelated processes—openness to diversity, valuing local aesthetics, and territorial commitment—that collectively produce rooted cosmopolitan places. Unlike traditional cosmopolitanism theories focused on global North urban centers, this approach highlights simultaneous engagement with difference, personal preferences, traditions, and shared space in a South American context. The research contributes to broader conversations on negotiating diverse flows in place, offering a nuanced conceptualization that avoids prescriptive development criteria while advancing theoretical and empirical insights.
The Visual Economy of Andean Childhood Poverty: Interpreting Postcards in Cusco, Peru
Postcards depicting 'Andean poor children' in Cusco, Peru, serve as a lens to understand how diverse actors—producers, tourists, vendors, and volunteers—negotiate meanings around childhood poverty through their interactions. While structural inequalities perpetuate stereotypical representations, the study reveals creative appropriation, resistance, and adaptation of these ideologies by those involved. This dynamic process reshapes discourse on poverty and sustains economic subsistence in the Andean market. The research combines ethnographic fieldwork with interviews to explore how flexible practices redefine visual narratives and social perspectives.
Apuntes para una Historia de los Himnos Quechuas del Cusco
Most Quechua hymns sung today in Cusco trace their origins to the late colonial period, emerging clearly only by the mid-19th century. This study proposes a chronology for the evolution of these hymns from the 16th to the 20th century, analyzing their historical development and suggesting that current forms represent a distinct genre not well-documented before the 1800s. The research examines existing texts to reconstruct this history, offering insights into the enduring expressions of Andean Christianity through linguistic and cultural analysis.
How Manco Capac, when he saw that his brothers had been turned into stones, went to a valley where he met some people; and how he founded and built the ancient and very rich city of Cuzco, which was the capital of the whole empire of the Incas
Archaeological and historical evidence from the UNESCO World Heritage Site of Cuzco reveals the mythological and ritualistic foundations of its establishment by Manco Capac, the first Inca ruler. The study suggests that the city's inception was marked by divine omens—such as celestial signs and bird flights—that guided Manco Capac in selecting the site for his settlement. The initial structure, a humble stone house with a straw roof named Curicancha (later becoming the Temple of the Sun), symbolized the city's golden legacy. This account, derived from indigenous narratives, highlights the syncretism of Inca religious practices and astronomical observations, providing insight into the cultural and spiritual significance of Cuzco's origins as the capital of the Inca Empire.
How the brothers, being in Tampu-Quiri, beheld him whom they had shut up in the cave by deceit, come forth with wings; and how he told them that he went to found the great city of Cuzco; and how they departed from Tampu-Quiru
A narrative from the Chronicle of Peru describes Ayar Cachi, one of the four brothers (the Orejones), emerging with feathered wings from a cave near Tampu-Quiru to announce the founding of the great city of Cuzco. This mythological account suggests that Ayar Cachi, later revered as a deity, foretold the establishment of Cuzco as a significant urban and religious center, emphasizing its role in worshipping the sun and the construction of a sumptuous temple. The text also introduces the practice of ear-boring among Incas, symbolizing their elevated status. This passage blends historical mythology with cultural practices, providing insight into the origins of Cuzco's significance as a UNESCO World Heritage Site. The narrative was recorded in the 16th century and offers a glimpse into Inca traditions and beliefs.
In which the things of this city of Cuzco are described more in detail
A detailed account of the city of Cuzco, dating back to 1532–50, reveals its significance as a political and economic hub in the Inca Empire. The text describes the city's role in gathering labor for maintenance tasks, its opulent architecture adorned with gold, and the presence of diverse ethnic groups from across the empire, each maintaining distinct cultural practices. Sacred rituals, including human sacrifices on the nearby Huanacaure hill, are also documented. This firsthand historical narrative provides invaluable insights into Inca urban organization, social structure, and religious practices during the early colonial period.
Of the manner in which the city of Cuzco is built, of the four royal roads which lead from it, of the grand edifices it contained, and who was its founder
The city of Cuzco was strategically built in a rugged mountainous terrain surrounded by two streams and valleys, with its layout reflecting ancient Incan urban planning. The site's division into Hanan-Cuzco (upper) and Hurin-Cuzco (lower) sections housed noble families, while the hill of Carmenca featured solar observation towers, indicating advanced astronomical knowledge. The city's fortified structures, such as those on the northern mountain, showcased impressive engineering, though many remain in ruins today. This 16th-century account by Pedro de Cieza de León provides a detailed ethnographic and architectural description, offering insights into Incan civilization's spatial organization, regional divisions (Antisuyu, Chincha-suyu, Collao, Cunti-suyu), and environmental adaptation.
Of the river of Apurimac, of the valley of Xaquixaguana, of the causeway which passes over it, and of what else there is to relate until the city of Cuzco is reached
A 16th-century account describes the formidable engineering challenges and risks of traversing the Apurimac River, a significant waterway between Abancay and Caxamarca. The text highlights the construction of a precarious bridge secured by two massive stone pillars, which was destroyed during conflict, forcing soldiers to cross in sacks suspended by ropes—a testament to the river's treacherous nature. The narrative also references ancient Inca structures and an oracle near the riverbank, where sacrifices were performed, suggesting cultural and historical significance. This primary source provides insight into the region's geomorphology, infrastructure resilience, and Indigenous beliefs during the early colonial period.
Of the road from Cuzco to the city of La Paz; and of the villages, until the Indians called Canches are passed
A historical account reveals the significant architectural and cultural heritage along the ancient royal road from Cuzco to La Paz, spanning approximately 80 leagues. The route, paved with stones and crossing a large swamp via a causeway, was adorned with grand edifices in Mohina, now in ruins, which contained vast amounts of gold, silver, and precious artifacts during the time of Spanish conquest. Evidence suggests the presence of monolithic structures with religious significance, possibly used for worship or ceremonial purposes. Additionally, the road features an impressive wall, likely part of an advanced irrigation system, showcasing the ingenuity and engineering prowess of the indigenous Canches people.
Of the sixth king who reigned in Cuzco, and of what happened in his time; and of the fable or history they relate touching the river that passes through the midst of the city of Cuzco
A historical account reveals that during the reign of Inca Eocca, a significant event occurred involving the city's first river. The narrative describes how the king, upon being injured during his coronation, retreated to a high hill where he summoned his sister and wife. This period marked a pivotal moment in Cuzco's history, as it was the time when a river began to flow through the city, addressing a longstanding need for water sources. The text blends historical records with cultural practices, such as the tradition of ear-plate wearing among the Orejones, providing insight into Inca societal norms and rituals during this era.
The Foundation of Cuzco, the Imperial City
A significant archaeological and historical insight emerges from the 'First Part of the Royal Commentaries of the Yncas,' which details the origins of Cuzco. The text reveals that the first settlement in the valley was established on Huanacauti Hill, where a golden sceptre symbolically sank into the ground, marking it as a sacred site dedicated to the worship of the Sun. This narrative, attributed to an unnamed Ynca (Inca ruler), describes how the first rulers, guided by divine mandate, spread from this hill to unite scattered communities, teaching them civilization and agriculture. The account provides a rare glimpse into Inca cosmology and governance, blending myth with historical foundation narratives. While not a traditional scientific study, its cultural and historical significance offers valuable context for understanding the socio-political structure of the Inca Empire.
Two New Species of Bryophryne (Anura: Strabomantidae) from High Elevations in Southern Peru (Region of Cusco)
Researchers have identified two new species of Bryophryne frogs in the high-altitude puna regions of southern Peru, specifically in the Province of La Convención within the UNESCO World Heritage Site of Cuzco. These discoveries bring the total number of known Bryophryne species to eight. One species is notable for being the second known to possess a tympanic annulus and membrane, along with vocal slits and sacs, distinguishing it by its blackish-brown venter adorned with yellow, orange, or pale pink blotches. The other species exhibits a unique coloration pattern, with males displaying an orange and pale gray mottled venter, while the single female observed has a black and pale gray mottled venter. Both species were found at elevations of 3800–4000 meters, inhabiting moss and Peruvian feather grass (Stipa ichu) respectively. The study provides a detailed map of type localities for all known Bryophryne species, contributing valuable data to the understanding of amphibian biodiversity in this region.
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