Publications
Exploring visual integrity in World Cultural Heritage Site inscriptions
The concept of 'visual integrity' in UNESCO World Heritage Site inscriptions perpetuates a homogenizing lens, despite its absence from official guidelines. This study reveals that the application of integrity in site evaluations is historically tied to normative aesthetics, which prioritize uniformity and unity. Analyzing two sites—Mbanza Kongo (Angola) and Writing-on-Stone (Canada)—the research demonstrates how this approach visualizes heritage through a narrow, standardized perspective, often at odds with its cultural diversity. The findings highlight the need for a more inclusive interpretation of integrity to better reflect the dynamic nature of World Heritage Sites.
L'artisanat des Briques de Terre a l'Epreuve du Changement Climatique : Dynamiques d'Adaptation autour des Techniques de Cuisson a Mbanza-Ngungu
Artisanal brickmaking in Mbanza-Ngungu, Democratic Republic of Congo, serves as a resilient economic pillar for rural and peri-urban communities, fostering technical innovation and community cooperation despite climatic challenges. While brickmakers adapt to resource scarcity through ingenious techniques, the process exerts significant pressure on forest resources due to high wood consumption for firing. The study highlights the urgent need for sustainable alternatives such as improved kilns, optimized brick formats, and alternative fuels to ensure ecological transition and long-term sustainability. This socio-anthropological research combines field surveys, semi-structured interviews, and participatory approaches with local actors to uncover endogenous knowledge and adaptive practices.
O Berço da Educação Formal em Angola: Cidade de Mbanza Kongo, Património Mundial. Reflexos da Cooperação do Antigo Reino do Kongo com Portugal. Desbravando o Património Imaterial
Mbanza Kongo, the former capital of the Kingdom of Kongo and a UNESCO World Heritage Site since 2017, stands out as the cradle of formal education in Angola. This study reveals that Mbanza Kongo introduced a modern system of formal education in the 15th century, predating similar developments in other regions of Angola. The research highlights the significance of this intangible heritage, which is comparable to its rich material heritage. Through a bibliographic review, the study underscores the cooperative relationship between the Kingdom of Kongo and Portugal as the foundation for this educational innovation. This finding not only enriches our understanding of Mbanza Kongo's historical legacy but also underscores its pivotal role in the broader narrative of education and cultural exchange in sub-Saharan Africa.
“Faço esta minha real carta, ao meu irmão mais moço”: o reino do Kongo e a correspondência diplomática com Portugal como ferramenta de poder (1780-1830)
Diplomatic correspondence between the Kingdom of Kongo and Portugal (1780–1830) reveals strategic manipulation of written communication by Kongo's ruling elite as a tool for asserting power and negotiating complex relationships with Portuguese authorities. Analyzing archival documents from Angola and Portugal, this study highlights how three Mani Kongos (Kongo kings) used diplomacy to challenge colonial governance, offering new insights into African political sovereignty during the early 19th century.
Mattheus Cardoso et le Catéchisme kikongo de 1624
A long-overlooked Jesuit missionary, Mattheus Cardoso, emerges as a pivotal figure in the history of evangelization and linguistic documentation in the Kingdom of Kongo. His 1624 Catéchisme kikongo stands as the earliest surviving text in a Bantu language, offering invaluable insights into theological concepts and their transmission through subsequent Jesuit catéchismes. The study reconstructs Cardoso's life—from his birth in Lisbon (1584) to his exile from Luanda (1623)—and analyzes his role in securing royal approval for a Jesuit college in Mbanza Kongo, despite political turmoil during the Portuguese invasion of 1622. By comparing his work with later catéchismes, the research reveals the evolution of theological discourse in Kongo, underscoring its significance as a foundational text in both religious and linguistic history.
So-called “vernacular” architecture in the Kongo Central province in the Democratic Republic of Congo (DR Congo): Characteristics and dynamics of architectural production in the Boko and Langa villages in Mbanza-Ngungu
Research on so-called 'vernacular' architecture in the Kongo Central province of the Democratic Republic of Congo (DR Congo) reveals that despite historical accounts by European explorers like Duarte Lopez and Filippo Pigafetta, this architectural tradition remains understudied. The study focuses on Boko and Langa villages in Mbanza-Ngungu, analyzing construction practices from 1921 to the mid-21st century. It highlights the transition in materials—from traditional methods to cement production post-1921—and explores enduring elements of Kongo architecture amid colonization and tradition. The research combines historical literature with on-the-ground observations to document spatial organizations and constructive details, offering insights into the dynamics of architectural production in this UNESCO World Heritage Site.
Etat des Lieux et Specificites Geologiques des Cavites Karstiques des Formations du Sous-groupe Schisto-calcaire des Regions de Mbanza-Ngungu, Kimpese et Songololo (Kongocentral, Republique Democratique du Congo).
A comprehensive inventory of karst caves in the Schisto-calcaire subgroup formations of Mbanza-Ngungu, Kimpese, and Songololo (Kongo Central, DRC) reveals significant gaps in prior research. This study addresses long-standing confusion by compiling bibliographic data, relocating cave sites using GIS when possible, and conducting field surveys from 2019 to 2022 to verify locations. The findings highlight the critical role of these caves as geologic water reservoirs, archaeological sites, and biodiversity hotspots while emphasizing their potential for cave-ins. This work provides a foundational dataset for future interdisciplinary research in geology, archaeology, and biology.
Multicultural Mankind: An Exploration of Portugal’s Worldwide Archaeological and Cultural Heritage
A comprehensive exploration of Portugal's global archaeological and cultural heritage reveals the profound multicultural legacy shaped by its colonial expansion. The study, led by Ana Rosa Cruz and Marco Valente, compiles contributions from 25 international scholars across 10 countries, examining sites such as Mbanza Kongo in Angola, Olivenza in Spain, and Macao in China. Through bilingual chapters in six languages, it highlights the interconnectedness of Portuguese heritage with Islamic, African, Asian, and Indigenous communities. Key insights include the decolonization process in Brazil, the preservation challenges in Macao, and the maritime history of Namibia. The research method combines comparative analysis, historical narratives, and archaeological evidence to illustrate Portugal's enduring influence on global cultural landscapes.
A Importância da Criação do Centro de Distribuição (CD) para a Optimização dos Processos Logísticos na Cadeia de Abastecimento da Mandioca
A proposed Distribution Center for cassava could significantly optimize supply chain processes in Mbanza Kongo. The study demonstrates that such a center would enhance harvesting and shipping efficiency while reducing distribution costs, thereby increasing profitability across the supply chain. This novel approach addresses gaps in existing research by providing a strategic plan for logistical processes tailored to cassava's unique requirements. The findings are based on exploratory and descriptive research, combining qualitative and quantitative methods, including documentary analysis, bibliographic reviews, questionnaires, and participatory observations. Statistical and hypothetical-deductive methods were also employed to support the proposed solution.
Approches comparative et analytique des pratiques funéraires anciennes à Mbanza Kongo (Province du Zaïre, Angola)
A comparative analysis of ancient funerary practices at Mbanza Kongo, the former capital of the Kingdom of Kongo, reveals how local cultual traditions persisted despite Christian influence. The study, using biological anthropology and archaeothanatology, examined two sites to determine burial chronology, architecture, spatial distribution, and inhumation methods. It found that while Christian elements were present in funerary practices, indigenous beliefs and rituals remained prominent, demonstrating cultural resilience in a medieval African society at the forefront of cultural metissage. The research also compared funerary dynamics between Mbanza Kongo and northern provinces of the Kingdom of Kongo, highlighting unique regional variations.
Personal adornments in West-Central Africa—the case study of a talc bead from the Kongo Kingdom (Mbanza Kongo, Angola)
A mustard-gold-colored talc bead, discovered during excavations at Lumbu (Mbanza Kongo, Angola), represents the first evidence of local production of personal adornment objects within the Kongo Kingdom. This bead, likely manufactured using talc sources known to the local population, suggests intra-kingdom trade or was intended as an offering for nobility. The study employed a multi-analytical and minimally invasive approach to distinguish it from imported glass beads, highlighting craft specialization in central and southern Africa dating back to pre-historic times.
Promoção da prática educativa da parentalidade positiva dos pais e encarregados da educação dos alunos adolescentes no contexto angolano
A study conducted in Mbanza Kongo, Angola, offers practical strategies to foster positive parenting practices (PPEP+) among parents and guardians of adolescent students. The research highlights the synergy between family and school environments as key to promoting cognitive, socio-affective, and socio-emotional development in adolescents. By analyzing parent-child relationships and the collaborative role of schools, the study developed a set of psychoeducational actions aimed at enhancing parental engagement and educational outcomes. These findings provide actionable insights for policymakers and educators seeking to improve adolescent development in similar cultural contexts.
Converging on Cannibals: Terrors of Slaving in Atlantic Africa, 1509–1670
The study reveals that 'cannibal talk'—claims of anthropophagy—served as a potent narratological strategy for both West Central African communities and European observers between the late 15th and late 17th centuries. These claims were used to terrorize enemies, dehumanize foreigners, and justify political and moral agendas, particularly in the context of slaving in Angola. Staller's analysis draws on a diverse archive of printed and manuscript materials, including letters, traveler accounts, missionary reports, and iconography, to reconstruct how cannibal stories circulated between the Kongo composite region, neighboring polities like Ndongo, and Europe. The research challenges earlier attempts to empirically identify the 'Jaga' invaders, instead framing these narratives as mythological tools that deflected attention from internal political violence in the Kongo Kingdom. It also highlights the role of European compilers like Samuel Purchas in perpetuating cannibalism narratives to bolster claims of empiricism and demonize non-Christian societies.
Inventaire des communautés lombriciennes de la région de Mbanza-Ngungu dans la province de Kongo-central (RD Congo)
A study conducted at Mbanza-Ngungu, a UNESCO World Heritage Site in the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC), identified nine earthworm species belonging to two families, with Dichogaster austeni and Hyperiodrilus africanus being notably widespread across different biotopes. Earthworms play a crucial role in soil fertility and nutrient cycling by decomposing litter and maintaining soil structure through gallery formation. The research, spanning from 2017 to 2019, found that species richness and diversity decreased from gallery formations to grasslands, highlighting the ecological significance of these organisms in the region's ecosystems.
Technical Study of Kongo‐Central Colonial Steel Houses Belonging to the DRC Patrimony
A technical study of colonial steel-framed houses in Mbanza Kongo, Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC), reveals critical insights into their structural degradation and conservation challenges. These buildings, designed in Belgium at the onset of colonization, face severe damage due to harsh climatic conditions and exploitation. The research, funded by the National Fund for Scientific Research of Belgium (FNRS) and conducted collaboratively by Université libre de Bruxelles and Université de Liège, focuses on the courthouse of Mbanza-Ngungu as a case study. It identifies construction techniques, structural pathologies, and potential refurbishment solutions to safeguard these heritage structures. This investigation marks the first phase of a broader project aimed at developing tropicalization strategies for engineering and architecture in similar environments.
“És feiticeiro, então já estudas”: Crianças em risco, agencialidade e mobilidade social em Angola
Children accused of witchcraft in post-civil war Angola can strategically leverage these accusations to access resources and improve their social mobility, challenging the notion that they are passive victims. This study reveals how the phenomenon of 'child-witches' intersects with Bakongo ethnopolitics and societal debates about the place of this ethnic group in Angolan society. Using ethnographic research focused on reintegration processes for children accused of witchcraft in Luanda and Mbanza Kongo, the study highlights significant transformations in the status of childhood and youth in post-Cold War crisis contexts across West Africa.
Cristianismo no Congo
The Kingdom of Kongo's long-standing and autonomous integration of Christianity, beginning with the baptism of Mwene Kongo Nzinga Nkuwu in 1491, revealed a complex process of cultural translation between Christian theology and Kongo cosmology. This study highlights how the kingdom strategically appropriated Christian rituals and symbols, particularly under Afonso Mvemba Nzinga (1504-1542), to strengthen political cohesion around Mbanza Kongo while navigating Portuguese colonial pressures. Using archival documents, linguistic instruments like catechisms, and historical accounts, researchers demonstrate that Christianity persisted as a tool for political maneuvering even after the kingdom's fragmentation in 1665, influencing later religious movements into the 20th century. The findings underscore the enduring significance of cultural hybridity in shaping Kongo's socio-political landscape.
Kimpa Vita (Dona Beatriz) and “Afro-Catholicism”: reexamining controversies and unsolved problems
Kimpa Vita (Dona Beatriz), a revered nganga marinda and religious leader from the Kingdom of Kongo, is recognized for introducing an Africanized version of Catholic Christianity, now termed 'Afro-Catholicism.' Her life and actions, particularly her political influence during civil war and her symbolic philosophy, have been subjects of controversy. This study reexamines her court case and execution, questioning its relation to the Inquisition, while highlighting her enduring theological impact on African Christianity. The research delves into her symbolism, philosophy, and references to another prophetess, Appolonia Mafuta, providing a renewed perspective on her role in shaping indigenous Christian traditions.
Poder, disputa e múltiplas narrativas históricas
Mbanza Kongo, the former capital of the Kingdom of Kongo, holds deep cultural and religious significance for the Bakongo people. A study reveals that local narratives portray Kulumbimbi as a sacred landscape symbolizing prosperity, peace, and sovereignty, contrasting sharply with colonial Portuguese and UNESCO interpretations that emphasize Luso-African presence. The research employs traditional oral histories to uncover these layered historical perspectives, highlighting the tension between indigenous identities and external narratives in shaping heritage significance.
First Report and Preliminary Evaluation of Cassava Root Necrosis in Angola
A preliminary survey conducted near the Democratic Republic of Congo border in northern Angola, specifically in Zaire province and Mbanza Kongo territory, has confirmed for the first time the presence of cassava root necrosis similar to Cassava Brown Streak Disease (CBSD). This discovery extends the known range of CBSD, which has been spreading across Africa since 2012. The study involved field surveys in multiple localities, identifying symptoms consistent with CBSD, despite prior attempts to isolate the pathogen in western DRC failing. The findings suggest a potential threat to cassava production in Angola, a critical staple food for millions.
A paisagem de São Salvador do Congo e o discurso colonial português frente a Conferência de Berlim (1884-1885)
This study reveals how the Portuguese colonial landscape of São Salvador do Congo (modern-day Mbanza Kongo, Angola) was strategically constructed to legitimize Portugal's territorial claims during the late 19th-century Scramble for Africa. By analyzing colonial narratives and archaeological evidence, researchers demonstrate that the city's landscape—marked by structures of power and religious significance—served as a symbolic tool to assert dominance over the southern Congo region. The findings highlight how Portuguese discourse, particularly in the context of the Berlin Conference (1884-1885), framed the site as a testament to historical achievements, reinforcing socio-political control while erasing indigenous histories. This approach underscores the intersection of colonial power dynamics and material culture in shaping Africa's political boundaries.
Religious Pluralism and the Limits of Ecumenism in Mbanza Kongo, Angola
In Mbanza Kongo, Angola, religious pluralism faces significant resistance due to historical associations between Christianity and oppressive power. Despite ecumenical efforts and legal mandates for religious groups to join an 'Ecumenical Platform,' local Bakongo people, particularly those returning from exile in the Democratic Republic of Congo, show strong opposition to Christian ecumenism. This resistance stems from a deep-seated resentment tied to colonial history, including the martyrdom of Kimpa Vita in 1706. Instead, Kongo religious institutions—some banned by Angolan laws—are being revitalized and spread among communities, offering an alternative to Christianity's perceived ties to suffering and oppression. The study highlights the challenges of grassroots ecumenism in this context, suggesting that such efforts may struggle to gain traction without addressing these historical grievances.
“Fit to the form of Christian living”. Catholic mission and resistance in African lands
The study reveals that the evangelization efforts by Capuchin missionaries in Mbanza Kongo during the late 17th and mid-18th centuries were met with significant resistance from African societies, despite the incorporation of Christian symbols, rituals, and practices. This 'African Christianity' emerged as a hybrid form, blending European Christian elements with local traditions. The analysis of three missionary guides highlights the anthropological underpinnings of evangelization strategies and underscores the dynamic nature of African societies in adapting to or resisting these influences.
Um lugar entre dois mundos: paisagens de Mbanza Kongo
Mbanza Kongo, once the capital of the Kingdom of Kongo, serves as both a symbol of colonial narrative and a site of ancestral identity. The study reveals that while colonial narratives framed Mbanza Kongo as a legacy of Portuguese civilizatory presence, post-independence movements challenged this, emphasizing its role in African tradition and resistance against colonialism. The research identifies key sites like Kulumbimbi, Ntotila, and Yala-Nkuwu as pivotal links between the physical city and its ideative landscape, underscoring their significance in ancestral memory and anti-colonial struggle. This dual perspective highlights Mbanza Kongo as a dynamic space for both historical reflection and future societal reconstruction.
Kongo Graphic Writing and Other Narratives of the Sign
Research reveals undeniable continuity between contemporary graphic writing systems used in Central Africa and those in Cuban Palo Mayombe initiation, tracing back to millennia-old rupestrian art found in Angola and the Democratic Republic of the Congo. The study challenges the notion that the plantation system destroyed African heritage by documenting deep-rooted Kongo-based traditions in the Caribbean, supported by historiography, art history, linguistics, and participant observation in Bakongo and Cuban Kongo initiation schools. Author Bárbaro Martínez-Ruiz, an Afro-Cuban Palo Monte practitioner, combines firsthand ethnographic experience with academic rigor to demonstrate how over 4,000 graphic signs in Cuba reflect Kongo knowledge while showcasing creativity and cultural adaptation. This foundational work bridges Africanist studies and diaspora research, emphasizing the agency of African cultural history.
O trabalho de campo como experiência etnográfica nas aldeias da comuna de Luvo, município de Mbanza Kongo
A groundbreaking ethnographic fieldwork experience conducted by anthropology students in the commune of Luvo, Mbanza Kongo, revealed the profound insights and challenges of immersive cultural engagement. The study highlighted the significance of direct interaction with local communities in understanding historical narratives and social dynamics within the vestiges of the former Kingdom of Kongo. By combining archaeological site visits with deep ethnographic fieldwork, participants gained firsthand experience in navigating new situations and collecting data, offering a unique perspective on anthropological research methods. This approach not only enriched their academic understanding but also provided valuable reflections on the application of theoretical knowledge in practical settings.
The Kongo Cross Across Centuries
Rock art in central Africa, particularly within the Lovo Massif of Mbanza Kongo, reveals that the 'Kongo cross' is an ancient symbol predating European influence and deeply intertwined with the rituals and cosmology of the former Kingdom of Kongo. Radiocarbon dating of charcoal drawings confirms their age from cal AD 1270 to 1800, linking them to pre-Christian Kongo practices such as the kimpasi initiation ceremony. The study integrates rock art with historical records, demonstrating its role in both traditional and Christian religious contexts, including funerary rituals and symbolic power structures.
Kongo: Power and Majesty
A recent study of Kongo power figures, including a prominent sculpture from the Metropolitan Museum of Art's collection, reveals that these artifacts were not merely decorative but functioned as receptacles for an immaterial spiritual force. Through interdisciplinary analysis involving art historians, conservators, and scientists, the research demonstrates that these figures underwent systematic ritual modifications by specialists (ngangas) after leaving the sculptor’s hands, adding hardware to their exteriors and interiors. The study challenges Western perceptions of Kongo society as isolated, highlighting instead its dynamic engagement with European influences through trade and diplomacy. By examining 120 Kongo artworks, the research situates these creations within a broader historical context, exploring themes of power, leadership, and cultural exchange between the Kingdom of Kongo and Europe from the late 15th century onward.
Mbanza Kongo/São Salvador: Culture and the Transformation of an African City, 1491 to 1670s
Mbanza Kongo, the capital of the Kingdom of Kongo from 1491 to the 1670s, underwent significant cultural transformation during the early Atlantic slave trade, diverging from European models and evolving into a distinct 'Christian city.' Unlike other Atlantic slave ports like Lagos or Whydah, Mbanza Kongo retained its role as a political and administrative center, shaped by the Kingdom's centralized governance rather than solely by trade demands. The study employs historical analysis to explore how Kongo kings and nobles reimagined their capital, blending African traditions with European influences, creating a unique urban identity that reflected both cultural continuity and adaptation.
Pre-verbal focus in Kisikongo (H16a, Bantu)
Kisikongo, a western Bantu language spoken near Mbanza Kongo (Angola), exhibits a rare clause-internal pre-verbal argument focus position, contrasting with the post-verbal focus typical of eastern and southern Bantu languages. This study identifies distinct mono-clausal and bi-clausal strategies—including cleft-constructions—for focusing arguments, expanding known linguistic patterns in the Kikongo Language Cluster (KLC). Research leveraged comparative analysis with neighboring Mbuun and Nsong dialects to highlight regional syntactic variations, offering new insights into Bantu linguistic diversity.
You are here:
World Heritage Explorer > World Heritage Research > World Heritage Sites > Mbanza Kongo, Vestiges of the Capital of the former Kingdom of Kongo