Publications
An Investigative Assessment of Recurrent Compositional Characteristics Within Leonardo da Vinci's The Last Supper
A two-decade investigation of Leonardo da Vinci’s The Last Supper reveals recurring anthropomorphic and compositional characteristics behind Christ, observed through advanced imaging techniques. The study employed non-invasive methods—including high-resolution photography, tonal-density mapping, and AI-assisted analysis—to document these features without advancing a predetermined conclusion. While the exact explanation remains unresolved, potential causes include deterioration, restoration history, or underlying compositional layers. This work serves as a historical record for future conservation and multidisciplinary research, offering new insights into Renaissance art and mural preservation.
Infrared and Raman Spectroscopy for the Analysis of Pictorial Materials: Leonardo da Vinci’s Last Supper in the Convent of Santa Maria delle Grazie, Milan †
Vibrational spectroscopy reveals that shellac, applied during Leonardo da Vinci’s 1946 restoration of The Last Supper, is the most pervasive material across its layers, penetrating deeply into the plaster. Analysis of fourteen microsamples from the mural—conducted during its 1977–1999 restoration—confirmed calcium carbonate as the primary inorganic support and identified organic binders like beeswax, while ruling out synthetic polymers such as polyvinyl-acetate or Paraloid B-72. The study underscores the non-destructive potential of infrared (IR) and Raman spectroscopy in documenting complex mural compositions and restoration histories, offering critical insights into da Vinci’s masterpiece.
Laboratory Tests for the Characterisation of a Sedimentary Arenaceous Limestone Used in the Architectural Heritage of Northern Italy
A comprehensive laboratory analysis reveals the chemical, physical, and mechanical properties of Saltrio stone, a sedimentary arenaceous limestone historically used in Northern Italy's architectural heritage, including the Church and Dominican Convent of Santa Maria delle Grazie. This study provides critical data for heritage conservation, addressing a significant gap in existing literature. The research employs a systematic test campaign to assess the stone's structural capacity, offering insights that are essential for preservation interventions and experimental tests on full-scale historical buildings. These findings support more accurate predictions and inform strategies for maintaining cultural assets like Leonardo da Vinci's 'The Last Supper' mural.
Leonardo's Score - La Geometria Intonata (it) - The Tuned Geometry (en). Leonardo's Last Supper: The Hidden Score — Proportion, Harmony and Perspective in Santa Maria delle Grazie
Leonardo da Vinci's The Last Supper (1494–98) in the Church and Dominican Convent of Santa Maria delle Grazie employs a sophisticated, modular geometric system that harmonizes depth, width, and height with unprecedented precision. The study reveals that Leonardo structured the space using a unitary module 'n,' where depth and height equal 66n and width 88n, creating a 4:3 ratio between dimensions. This system, verified through CAD analysis, eliminates progressive deformations observed in prior studies (e.g., Landrus, 2007) by rejecting the assumption of a square-based perspective grid. Instead, it demonstrates a dynamic interplay of rhythms—1:4:1 for the coffered ceiling and 2:1:2 for lateral walls—while maintaining symmetry around Christ's axis. The diagonal serves as both a perspectival vector toward Christ and a compositional element, showcasing Leonardo's economy of means and layered spatial logic. This research extends the author's prior work on Leonardo's rhythmic grammar, offering a cohesive framework to reinterpret his use of geometry in art.
Leonardo's Score - La Geometria Intonata (it) Leonardo's Last Supper: The Hidden Score — Proportion, Harmony and Perspective in Santa Maria delle Grazie
Leonardo da Vinci's The Last Supper (1494–98) in the Church of Santa Maria delle Grazie is revealed to follow a sophisticated, harmonized geometric system that challenges traditional assumptions about its construction. The study demonstrates that Leonardo structured the space using a modular unit 'n', with ratios 1:4:1 for the ceiling and 2:1:2 for the lateral walls, creating a symmetric, bilaterally balanced composition centered on Christ. Unlike prior analyses suggesting a square-based grid leading to distortions, this research shows these deformations arise from methodological assumptions rather than Leonardo's design. Verified through CAD analysis, the system avoids perspective acceleration, instead using a single diagonal as both a spatial vector and a focal point toward Christ. The findings suggest Leonardo anticipated geometric solids later illustrated with Luca Pacioli, highlighting his integration of mathematical precision and artistic innovation.
Leonardo's Spatial Grammar: A CAD Reverse-Engineering Analysis Corpus: Leonardo's CAD, Leonardo's Rulers, Leonardo's Score
A groundbreaking analysis deconstructs the myth of Leonardo da Vinci's rigid adherence to Albertian square-based perspective, revealing instead a dynamic, metric-modular spatial grammar that evolves across his works. Through three-dimensional CAD reverse-engineering and geometric analysis of 'The Annunciation,' 'Adoration of the Magi,' and 'The Last Supper,' researchers demonstrate how Leonardo developed a system of 'inserted rulers'—a rhythmic, stereometric architecture rooted in human measurements. This approach rejects esoteric interpretations, showing that spatial proportions (e.g., 4:3 module, 1:4:1 and 2:1:2 polyphonic rhythms) are directly derivable from the artwork itself, yielding spaces that are not only measurable but architecturally reconstructible. The study underscores Leonardo's innovative integration of perspective, narrative, and human-scale design, redefining his spatial syntax as a projective, adaptive system.
Acoustic Emission for Structural Monitoring of Historical Masonry: An In-Field Application
Acoustic Emission (AE) shows promise as a non-invasive tool for monitoring the structural health of historic masonry, despite challenges posed by material heterogeneity. A field test at the Church and Dominican Convent of Santa Maria delle Grazie demonstrated that AE can provide qualitative insights into damage initiation and progression when combined with conventional monitoring methods. The study highlights AE's potential to complement traditional techniques in heritage conservation, offering a more comprehensive interpretation of structural behavior under load tests.
Analysis of Leonardo Da Vinci's Work “The Last Supper” in the Context of Iconographic Analysis
Leonardo da Vinci's 'The Last Supper' (1495), commissioned by Ludovico Sforza for the Church of Santa Maria delle Grazie, stands as both a Renaissance masterpiece and an enigmatic work that has captivated human interest across centuries. This study applies iconographic analysis—comprising 'natural subject,' 'conventional subject,' and 'intrinsic meaning'—to dissect the artwork's cultural context, Leonardo's stylistic contributions, and the broader societal influences shaping its creation. By meticulously examining historical and symbolic elements, the research reveals how 'The Last Supper' transcends religious representation to embody Renaissance ideals, offering new insights into its layered significance.
Gestures in Renaissance Art Depictions and Their Psychological Importance for the Subjects-Taking The Last Supper As An Example
Renaissance art, particularly Leonardo da Vinci's 'The Last Supper,' employs gestures and facial expressions to convey complex psychological messages. This study reveals that the behavioral psychology evident in these depictions predates modern theories, with Jesus' tranquility serving as a bridge between dynamic biblical narratives and static artistic rendition. By analyzing gestures, postures, and expressions through a case study of 'The Last Supper' and reviewing related literature, the research demonstrates how art transcends mere representation to deliver layered meanings rooted in psychological principles.
Knowledge and Documentation of Renaissance Works of Art: The Replica of the “Annunciation” by Beato Angelico
A groundbreaking digital high-resolution replica of Beato Angelico's 'Annunciation' has been developed, offering unprecedented insights into the Renaissance masterpiece. This 3D reconstruction combines photogrammetry and photometric stereo techniques to capture both the painting's surface and its wooden frame with varying depth resolutions. The resulting gigapixel imaging surrogate not only enhances scholarly analysis for restoration planning but also provides an immersive experience for visitors, revealing hidden details of the artwork. This innovative approach pushes the boundaries of digital documentation, enabling deeper understanding and preservation of cultural heritage.
Strengthening of Masonry Arches: The “Santa Maria Delle Grazie” Church
A novel approach to reinforcing masonry arches using FRCM (Fiber-Reinforced Cementitious Matrix) composites, specifically with PBO (Polyparafenilenbenzobisoxazole) tapes, demonstrates significant potential for enhancing the seismic response of historical structures. This method compensates for the tensile strength limitations of traditional masonry by applying a grid of PBO tapes on the intrados of arches, effectively counteracting plastic hinge formation and improving structural stability. The study focuses on the Church and Dominican Convent of Santa Maria delle Grazie where ongoing restoration efforts include the reinforcement of vulnerable south arcades situated on a slope. By developing a simplified modeling strategy for FRCM-reinforced curved masonry structures, this research provides technicians with a practical tool to accurately describe the mechanical behavior of such systems, offering a promising solution for preserving cultural heritage while ensuring structural integrity.
The Cabinets of the Sacristy of Santa Maria delle Grazie in Milan and the Representation of Architecture
The cabinets in the sacristy of Santa Maria delle Grazie, commissioned by Ludovico il Moro after Beatrice d’Este’s death in 1497, offer a unique glimpse into the architectural and figurative practices of their anonymous creators. Unlike prior scholarship that focused on decorative techniques and perspective, this study reveals how the buildings depicted in the biblical scenes’ backgrounds reflect broader Renaissance architectural culture. While attribution remains uncertain, the analysis highlights the cabinets as significant artifacts of Milanese artistic tradition, blending heraldic symbolism with innovative spatial representation.
Say a Little Hallo to Padre Pio Production and Consumption of Space in the Construction of the Sacred at the Shrine of Santa Maria delle Grazie
A study reveals how the production and consumption of space at the Shrine of Santa Maria delle Grazie contribute to the construction of sacredness, offering insights into the interplay between physical environment and religious experience. The research analyzes the spatial dynamics within the shrine, focusing on its architectural and social dimensions to understand how these elements shape pilgrimage practices and the perception of the sacred. By examining the interactions between visitors, the site's design, and historical narratives, the study highlights the significance of spatial organization in fostering a sense of reverence and spiritual connection.
Holographic Visualization and Management of Big Point Cloud
Holographic visualization of large-scale point clouds demonstrates impressive fluidity and detail retention, even at high zoom levels. This breakthrough was achieved using the Euclideon Hologram Table©, which processes 3D surveys from multiple scales—architectural (e.g., Santa Maria delle Grazie in Milan), environmental (e.g., Ghesc village in Ossola valley), and micro-scale (e.g., cuneiform clay tablet). The study validated the workflow from 3D modeling to holographic rendering, assessing file formats, performance, and detail visibility. While the results show strong potential for immersive exploration of cultural heritage, further research is needed to enhance visualization quality and interactive capabilities.
Il restauro tra le macerie nella Milano della ricostruzione. Gli interventi al refettorio con l’Ultima cena di Leonardo e al Chiostro dei morti nel convento di Santa Maria delle Grazie (1943-1948)
Post-World War II reconstruction efforts at the Church and Dominican Convent of Santa Maria delle Grazie, home to Leonardo da Vinci's 'The Last Supper,' revealed complex challenges and controversies. The study highlights significant restoration interventions between 1943 and 1948, following severe damage from Allied bombings that targeted Milan. Archival analysis sheds light on the scale of these efforts, the roles of key stakeholders—including institutional figures and professionals—and the debates they sparked. These challenges mirrored broader issues in post-war reconstruction, including technical difficulties, limitations in heritage preservation, disciplinary ambiguities, political tensions, and personal conflicts. The findings underscore the intricate interplay between conservation needs, historical significance, and socio-political dynamics during a pivotal yet contentious period in Milan's rebuilding.
Leonardo da Vinci’s “Last Supper”: a case study to evaluate the influence of visitors on the Museum preservation systems
A novel methodology using stable carbon isotopic ratio of CO2 and NH3 concentration reveals the significant impact of visitors on indoor air quality in museums, offering real-time monitoring capabilities. The study, conducted at the Refectory of Santa Maria delle Grazie in Milan, Italy—home to Leonardo da Vinci’s 'The Last Supper'—demonstrated a strong correlation between visitor presence and variations in δ13C values and NH3 levels. These findings highlight how tourists influence atmospheric conditions, providing critical insights for optimizing museum preservation systems. The approach suggests potential applications for calibrating ventilation rates and air filtration, thereby enhancing the protection of valuable artworks while managing visitor flow.
Nature-Based Solution for Reducing CO2 Levels in Museum Environments: A Phytoremediation Study for the Leonardo da Vinci’s “Last Supper”
A nature-based solution (NBS) using Laurus nobilis L. (common laurel) demonstrates significant potential for reducing CO2 levels in air-tight museum environments, such as the Refectory of the Santa Maria delle Grazie Church in Milan, Italy, home to Leonardo da Vinci’s 'The Last Supper.' The study found that laurel plants can effectively remove CO2 under controlled conditions, with light-saturated net assimilation (Pnmax) increasing significantly at elevated CO2 levels (1000 ppm). This capacity varies seasonally, with higher performance in spring and autumn. To manage visitor-related CO2 emissions, the research suggests deploying 58 to 112 young laurel plants in an external greenhouse connected to the museum’s HVAC system, depending on seasonal conditions. These findings propose a sustainable approach to integrating NBS with traditional air-cleaning systems to enhance indoor environmental quality in heritage sites.
Reliving history: the digital reconstruction of the convent of Santa Maria delle Grazie in Milan
A groundbreaking digital reconstruction of the Church and Dominican Convent of Santa Maria delle Grazie in Milan, home to Leonardo da Vinci's 'The Last Supper,' reveals the complex evolutionary history of this Gothic-Renaissance masterpiece. By integrating documentary sources, architectural treatises, period photographs, and 3D modeling, researchers mapped the chronological succession of the convent's transformations—from harmonious Renaissance interventions to incompatible 18th–19th century additions. The resulting 3D models not only serve as a tool for verifying reconstruction hypotheses but also create dynamic databases that can be easily consulted and updated, offering unprecedented insights into cultural heritage preservation and historical analysis.
Terahertz time-domain imaging of “The Last Supper”
Terahertz time-domain imaging has revealed the internal structure of Leonardo da Vinci's 'The Last Supper,' providing new insights into the wall painting's composition. This non-invasive technique confirmed earlier estimates based on fragment samples, offering a deeper understanding of the artwork's layered complexity without requiring physical intervention. The study leveraged terahertz waves to penetrate the painting and map its internal layers, supporting conservation efforts by validating prior hypotheses about its structure.
Digital Survey in Bramante's Masterpieces
A digital survey of Bramante's architectural masterpieces within the Church and Dominican Convent of Santa Maria delle Grazie reveals the potential for advanced documentation and virtual reconstruction. The study, focusing on areas such as the Chiostro delle Rane, Old Sacristy, and Chiostro del Priore, employs evolving survey techniques to capture both high-detail and simplified representations. This approach aims to balance thoroughness with efficiency, addressing challenges in documenting complex heritage sites. The research also explores comparisons with other Bramante works and the creation of virtual environments, offering insights into preservation and dissemination strategies for cultural heritage.
Forgotten Architecture: Smart Tools for Cultural Tourism in the Cloister of the Prior (Santa Maria Delle Grazie, Milan)
A high-fidelity 3D model of the Cloister of the Prior, a lesser-known but architecturally significant part of the Santa Maria delle Grazie complex in Milan, has been successfully generated using advanced photogrammetric techniques. The study demonstrates that careful lens selection and post-processing can overcome challenges posed by smooth white surfaces to produce accurate point clouds suitable for virtual reality (VR) and augmented reality (AR) applications. This model serves as a foundation for immersive cultural tourism experiences, offering visitors insights into the cloister's history while also enabling future research on its historical modifications.
From Digital Survey to a Virtual Tale
Advanced digital technologies, including serious games and virtual reconstructions, offer transformative potential for communicating and preserving cultural heritage. This study demonstrates how digital surveying, combined with historical research, can virtually reconstruct the Church and Dominican Convent of Santa Maria delle Grazie in Milan, bringing to life its Renaissance significance and troubled history. By modeling key rooms using a novel digital workflow, researchers showcase how these tools can effectively disseminate the monument's value as a testament to past eras, bridging gaps between current states and original appearances while contributing to innovative educational methods.
Leonardo da Vinci’s The Last Supper: Reconstruction of the Room Using Reverse Geometric Perspective Processes
A novel geometric approach reveals the three-dimensional spatial principles underlying Leonardo da Vinci’s The Last Supper, offering a reverse perspective method to reconstruct the room’s 3D space from its 2D depiction. This study demonstrates how Leonardo’s masterpiece encodes complex architectural and mathematical relationships, providing insights into his creative process. By inverting traditional geometric perspective techniques, researchers reconstructed the room’s structure, bridging art and science with precision. The findings highlight the interplay between artistic intuition and rigorous mathematical principles in Renaissance art.
The Secrets of S. Maria delle Grazie: Virtual Fruition of an Iconic Milanese Architecture
Virtual Reality (VR) technology emerges as a powerful tool for preserving and communicating cultural heritage, bridging the gap between history and contemporary audiences. This study demonstrates that VR can effectively document and revitalize inaccessible or historically significant sites, such as the Church and Dominican Convent of Santa Maria delle Grazie in Milan, home to Leonardo da Vinci's 'The Last Supper.' By combining photogrammetry and terrestrial laser scanning, researchers reconstructed five key areas of the convent—The Cloister of the Frogs, the Cloister of the Prior, the Old Sacristy, the Small Sacristy, and the New Sacristy—into detailed 3D models. These were then integrated into a game engine to create an immersive VR simulation that offers unprecedented educational experiences and storytelling possibilities. The approach not only enhances architectural appreciation but also provides innovative ways to engage with cultural heritage, surpassing traditional documentation methods.
Digital restoration of the Last Supper by Leonardo Da Vinci and multimedia tools to experience edutainment
A groundbreaking digital restoration of Leonardo da Vinci's The Last Supper reveals previously unseen details, including an ideal city sketched behind Jesus and a salt shaker disrupted by Judas, using high-definition imaging and pigment cloning. The project, displayed at the Leonardo3 Museum in Milan, reconstructs the fresco's original colors through virtual archaeological techniques, comparing it with contemporary copies like Giampietrino's version. Multimedia tools and virtual reality (VR) enable an 'edutainment' experience, allowing users to interactively explore the painting as it appeared when da Vinci created it. This innovative approach combines art history, science, and heritage preservation, offering a new way to engage with cultural landmarks.
A propósito de La última cena, performance de Verónica Ruth Frías
Leonardo da Vinci's 'The Last Supper' (Cenacolo or L’Ultima Cena), painted in the refectory of Santa Maria delle Grazie convent in Milan at the end of the 15th century, marked a groundbreaking departure from previous biblical depictions. Commissioned by Ludovico Sforza for the Dominican convent, this masterpiece redefined artistic representation of the New Testament passage. The study 'A propósito de La última cena' by Verónica Ruth Frías analyzes the performance and cultural significance of da Vinci's work, offering insights into its historical context and enduring influence on art and heritage preservation.
The Twilight of Presence: Pictorialized Illumination in Leonardo da Vinci’s Last Supper
Leonardo da Vinci’s Last Supper in the Church and Dominican Convent of Santa Maria delle Grazie was designed to interact dynamically with the refectory's lighting conditions, creating a visually immersive experience. Using advanced rendering software, researchers reconstructed the original environment to analyze how light and space shaped the mural's perception. This study demonstrates that The Last Supper was not merely a static painting but an interactive work meant to engage viewers through carefully calibrated illumination, bridging art history with forensic visualization techniques.
La chambre des merveilles votive du sanctuaire mantouan de Santa Maria delle Grazie. Le rôle des franciscains au XVIe siècle
A rare collection of three-dimensional ex-voto offerings, including life-sized portraits and anatomical waxes, has been identified within the 14th-century Franciscan sanctuary of Santa Maria delle Grazie in Mantua. These artifacts, preserved in situ, date back to the early modern period (1520s) and were meticulously arranged by Franciscans to showcase the miraculous efficacy of the Virgin Eleousa. The study reveals how the religious institution strategically controlled and staged these votive objects, reflecting social hierarchies while narrating both grand historical figures (e.g., popes, emperors) and personal stories of ordinary individuals (e.g., condemned prisoners). This research highlights the intersection of religious devotion, institutional power, and artistic expression in Renaissance Italy.
The Last Supper Interactive: Stereoscopic and ultra-high resolution 4K/3D HD for immersive real-time virtual narrative in Italian Renaissance Art
A groundbreaking virtual narrative tool, inspired by Leon Battista Alberti's rules of linear perspective, enables immersive real-time exploration of Leonardo da Vinci's 'The Last Supper.' This stereoscopic and ultra-high resolution 4K/3D HD application, part of the Last Supper Interactive (LSI) project, transforms the iconic 15th-century mural into an interactive learning experience. By leveraging Alberti's theorem virtual tool, users engage with the artwork in a dynamic, three-dimensional environment that preserves its historical and artistic significance while offering new dimensions for study and appreciation.
Observation and Creativity: Leonardo da Vinci
Leonardo da Vinci (1452–1519) stands as a paragon of Renaissance creativity, blending artistry with an imaginative and enquiring mind that often outpaced his contemporaries. His works, including the iconic 'The Last Supper' painted in Milan's Dominican convent of Santa Maria delle Grazie, achieved legendary status by the 17th century, described as 'a very great miracle.' Da Vinci's artistic innovation is further exemplified by his portrait 'Lady with an Ermine,' which was recently showcased in London. His career reflects a unique synthesis of observation and creativity, challenging traditional distinctions between art and science.
Chemical Characterization and Source Apportionment of Fine and Coarse Particulate Matter Inside the Refectory of Santa Maria Delle Grazie Church, Home of Leonardo Da Vinci’s “Last Supper”
A year-long study at the Church and Dominican Convent of Santa Maria delle Grazie in Milan revealed that indoor particulate matter (PM) concentrations were significantly lower than outdoor levels, with PM2.5 and PM2.5-10 reduced by 88% and 94%, respectively, primarily due to an effective ventilation system. While gasoline vehicles, urban soil, and wood smoke contributed minimally to indoor organic carbon (OC), fatty acids and squalane showed high indoor-to-outdoor concentration ratios, suggesting a dominant indoor source. This research highlights the role of both outdoor pollution infiltration and indoor emissions in affecting cultural heritage, offering insights for conservation strategies.
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