Publications
Missale Strigoniense 1512: prameň gregoriánskeho chorálu v kontexte Levočskej zbierky hudobnín
The Missale Strigoniense, a 16th-century liturgical manuscript from the Levoča Lutheran Music Collection, emerges as a significant yet understudied source for Gregorian chant in Slovakia and Central Europe. Printed in Venice in 1512 by Urban Keym of Buda and Peter Liechtenstein, this missal preserves a rare repertoire of medieval chants within the Mass tradition. A comprehensive musicological analysis reveals its formal characteristics and contextualizes it within broader liturgical practices, offering new insights into the musical heritage of the region. This study fills a gap in scholarly attention to the manuscript, providing a detailed examination of its contents and significance.
Regional cooperation as a tool for strengthening slovak-ukrainian relations: practical experience and development prospects
Interregional and intermunicipal cooperation emerges as a powerful tool for strengthening Slovak-Ukrainian relations, complementing traditional diplomatic instruments. The study highlights the catalytic role of official diplomacy alongside the complementary nature of public and business diplomacy, with NGOs like the Carpathian Platform playing a pivotal role due to their agility, resource access, and ability to innovate models of interaction. Using the partnership between Zhovkva (Ukraine) and Levoča (Slovakia) as a case study, the research demonstrates how such cooperation can foster sustainable international relations in cultural heritage, energy, local governance, education, and economics. The findings underscore the potential for deeper interregional collaboration to support Ukraine's European integration and address cross-border challenges like energy security.
The Good Old Times? Sensory History of Master Paul Square in Levoča, 1948–1989
Levoča’s Master Paul Square, with its enduring historical architecture, resisted socialist sensory transformation during 1948–1989. While the regime aimed to reshape visual and auditory experiences through propaganda and modernization, the square’s persistent sensory environment preserved continuity with the past. Locals remembered socialism not for its ideology but for fostering community and shared experiences. The study employs a sensory history approach, analyzing how architecture, soundscapes, and daily practices anchored collective memory, revealing the resilience of cultural heritage in socialist contexts.
Tři stylové proměny v tvorbě Mistra Pavla z Levoče .......... 477
Master Paul of Levoča's artistic evolution, spanning three distinct stylistic phases, reveals a synthesis of late Gothic and Renaissance influences. The study identifies his early Nuremberg works, such as 'Christ on a Donkey,' as foundational, dated to the 1480s through comparisons with local art. His later works, including the Nativity group in Levoča and the main altar, demonstrate a creative response to Gerhaert of Leyden and Veit Stoss, blending 'gerhaertism' with an idealized divine form. A notable shift toward Renaissance motifs, like dolphins, emerges around 1516, suggesting exposure to Italianizing trends in Hungary or Venice. This transformation underscores Paul's role as a regional pioneer, influencing altarpieces in Levoča, Spišská Sobota, and Sabinov.
Chórprefekt Friedrich Wilhelm Wagner a regionálny výskum dejín zborového spevu na Spiši
A comprehensive analysis of the Levoča/Leutschau Lutheran Music Collection (SK-Le) reveals the significant role of Chórprefekt Friedrich Wilhelm Wagner (1815–1887) in shaping the musical culture of Spiš/Zips during the Classicism and Romanticism periods. The study highlights Wagner's contributions, preserved in Part MUS B of the collection, which includes manuscripts and prints from the 18th to early 20th centuries. This research sheds light on the region's highly developed musical life, emphasizing music networking and migration patterns in Central Europe. By focusing on lesser-known sources, the study provides new insights into the historical development of choral singing and its cultural significance within the UNESCO World Heritage Site.
Inscriptional Culture in Pentapolitana Cities in the Early Modern Period
A notable pattern emerges from the epigraphic landscape of the Pentapolitana cities during the Early Modern period: inscriptions served as a powerful medium for urban patricians to assert independence and reflect cultural developments shaped by Humanism, Renaissance ideals, and Protestant influences. The study highlights significant examples, such as the mid-16th-century depiction of Martin Luther in Levoča Town Hall, and early 17th-century inscriptions that underscore bourgeois aspirations. Sepulchral monuments, a dominant form of epigraphic expression, provide rich prosopographical data, including biblical quotations valuable for ecclesiastical research and literary works like epicedia. The analysis draws on these monuments to reconstruct the inscriptional culture's evolution, offering insights into the region's intellectual and social dynamics.
Johannes Henckel (1480/81-1539), viața și opera unei personalități culturale a primei jumătăți a secolului al XVI-lea (II)
A significant cultural library assembled by Johannes Henckel (1480/81–1539) in 16th-century Levoča, Spiš region, has been rediscovered after centuries of obscurity. This collection, initially established in St Jacob’s Church and comprising books from the Saxon community alongside Henckel's personal works, survived despite the Reformation without significant damage. Its re-emergence in the late 18th century, following the interest of Ignác Batthyány, sheds light on the preservation of cultural heritage during periods of religious transition. The study highlights the resilience and historical value of this forgotten library, with surviving books now dispersed across institutions in Budapest, Martin, and Cluj-Napoca.
Development of Pilgrimage Tourism in Slovakia over the Past Decades: Examples of Selected Pilgrimage Sites
Pilgrimage tourism in Slovakia has shown significant growth over the past decades, with Levoča and Šaštín serving as key examples. Despite challenges posed by the COVID-19 pandemic, these sites maintained strong visitor participation, highlighting their resilience and enduring appeal. The study identifies a clear upward trend in attendance, underscoring the need for collaborative efforts to sustain historically significant pilgrimage destinations. This research emphasizes Slovakia's potential for developing this tourism sector, calling for government support to maximize its benefits for local development and visibility of less-visited sites.
Historical Stages of the Pastoral Care of the Minorites in Špišská Štrvok and Levoča
The Order of Franciscan Friars Minor, known as the Minorites, played a significant role in the spiritual and cultural development of Spiš, Slovakia, particularly in Levoča and Spišský Štvrtok. Their activity flourished until the Night of the Barbarians, which led to the closure of their monasteries and deportation. This study reconstructs the historical stages of their pastoral care, highlighting the importance of the monasteries they established. It also traces the renewal of Franciscan activity in the region post-1989. The research employs historical analysis and archival data to provide a comprehensive overview of this period, offering insights into the resilience and enduring legacy of the Minorites in Spiš.
In-situ temperature monitoring of an internal insulated wall in a historic building
Internal insulation using calcium silicate board and phenolic foam significantly alters temperature dynamics in historic masonry, as demonstrated by in-situ monitoring of a wall in Levoča’s Spišský Hrad. The study found that insulated walls exhibit distinct thermal behavior compared to uninsulated references, with measurable differences in surface temperatures, sub-insulation layers, and deeper masonry (100 mm depth). These findings highlight the impact of insulation materials on perimeter structures while also assessing their influence on indoor environmental quality. By comparing temperature profiles under different insulation conditions—calcium silicate board and phenolic foam—the research provides critical insights for preserving thermal performance in heritage buildings without compromising structural integrity.
Niekoľko poznámok k pracovným postupom Mateja Bela pri spracovaní kapitoly o Spišskom hrade v jeho opise Spišskej stolice
Matej Bel's 1723 description of Spišský Hrad, part of his 'Historia Comitatus Scepusiensis,' offers a stylized yet largely accurate account of the castle's location, physical features, and history. While Bel relied heavily on Juraj Bohuš’s extensive Latin manuscript, he omitted detailed political-historical events and focused instead on concise descriptions. Though modern research has since expanded knowledge—particularly on early history and architectural phases—Bel’s work remains valuable for its historical context and preservation of key details. The study highlights how Bel selectively used Bohuš’s data, blending it with additional insights to create a more streamlined narrative.
Sonda do inštitucionalizovanej starostlivosti o zrakovo znevýhodnenú mládež na Slovensku v medzivojnovom období s dôrazom na ústav v Levoči
A groundbreaking study reveals the significant role of institutional care for visually impaired youth in interwar Czechoslovakia, with a focus on the Czechoslovak State Institute in Levoča. This research highlights the comprehensive social and health care provided to this vulnerable group, emphasizing education as a crucial component for their future integration. The study meticulously analyzes the organizational structure and daily life within three key institutions: the Czechoslovak State Institute in Levoča, the Institute for the Blind in Báhon, and the Private Craft Institute for the Blind in Prešov. Notably, the Institute in Levoča stands out as a pivotal institution that offered both care and education, addressing critical gaps in Slovak historiography regarding social-health care for the visually impaired.
Vlna Cholery 1831–1832 v Urbálnom Prostredí Špiša v Percepcii Matričných Záznamov Rímskokatolickej Círvi – Historickodemografická Sonda
A historical demography study reveals significant mortality patterns during the 1831–1832 cholera epidemic in Spiš, Slovakia, with detailed analysis of death rates, age and sex distribution of victims, and population dynamics. The research leverages Roman Catholic church registers, historical schematisms, and statistical data to identify peak epidemic phases and compare cholera-related mortality with other causes of death. Findings highlight the devastating impact of cholera on urban populations in Spiš, including two royal cities (Kežmarok and Levoča) and five smaller towns, providing insights into 19th-century public health crises in Central Europe.
A 17. századi biblikus cseh nyelvű naptárak műveltségszerkezeti regiszterei
A study of 17th-century Czech-language calendars printed in the Kingdom of Hungary reveals their role as cultural registers that catered to multiethnic communities, blending practicality with intellectual depth. The research identifies a divergence between David Frölich's sophisticated Schreibkalendern produced for European humanists and his simplified Biblical Czech editions for Hungarian readers, reflecting regional differences in erudition and editorial style. The analysis of calendars from Levoča and Trenčín, before the latter's press relocated to Žilina, highlights their accessibility and relevance to everyday life, contributing to their widespread popularity. The study also notes that Simeon Partlicius' calendars marked an early alignment with German-language models in terms of cultural content.
Knižná väzba vybraných stredovekých rukopisov z Bratislavy, Kremnice, Košíc a Spiša
A study of medieval bookbindings from four Slovak collections reveals distinct regional and workshop influences. The research identifies Vienna, Tegernsee, and Košice as key production centers, with the Dominican monastery in Košice operating its own workshop characterized by specific stamps like 'Maria.' Additionally, two clusters of Spiš region bindings—one featuring bouquet compositions and another with eagle stamps—highlight local craftsmanship beyond the known Levoča workshop. The analysis, based on 25 manuscripts from Kremnica, five from Bratislava’s Franciscan monastery, and others from Batthyaneum Library and Košice, employs blind-tooled decoration techniques to trace origins and stylistic evolution.
Mierzanowice culture material from Spišský hrad
Archaeological excavations at Spišský hrad, Slovakia, have uncovered ceramic fragments linked to the Mierzanowice culture, dating back to the late phase of this prehistoric group. The findings include distinctive zonal cord ornaments, wavy-line negatives, and triangle-shaped stamp ornamentation, providing direct evidence of cultural connections between eastern Slovakia and the Polish Carpathians. Unlike previous studies, this research highlights the presence of earlier Mierzanowice culture phases through left-inclined cord imprints, offering new insights into the region's prehistoric settlement patterns. The study analyzed secondary deposits from past reconstructions, revealing a rare ceramic inventory that bridges the San river valley and Raba-Vistula regions, thus expanding our understanding of this multicultural site.
Proces udeľovania farského benefícia vo vidieckych farnostiach vrcholne stredovekého Uhorského kráľovstva ako príklad komunikácie medzi cirkevnou a svetskou mocou
A rare collection of charters, preserved in the Levoča or Spiš rotulus, provides unprecedented insight into the medieval process of granting parish benefices in rural Hungary. These documents, though few, were used as evidence in a 14th-century dispute between the Provost of Spiš and the Bishop of Eger, suggesting they met all contemporary legal requirements for indisputable possession of a benefice. The study reveals that the process involved two phases: one led by lay patrons, focusing on selecting and presenting parish priests with parishioner participation, and another under ecclesiastical authority, consisting of three steps—proclamatio, investiture, and introductio—though only the investiture is observable in the analyzed records.
Quelques remarques sur la genèse de la Chronique de Spišská Sobota
A single surviving manuscript of the Chronique de Spišská Sobota suggests it served as a tool for legitimizing the rights of German-speaking urban communities in the Spiš region, potentially linked to the League of Spiš Cities. Analysis indicates composition around 1450–1460, likely motivated by the impending loss of autonomy in 1465, and points to authorship by a lay intellectual from Levoča involved in local administration.
Reformations of Medieval Art New Research on the Church of St. James in Levoča (Slovakia)
New research on the Church of St. James in Levoča, Slovakia, reveals significant insights into the artistic and cultural transformations during the late medieval period. The study highlights the church's extensive collection of mural paintings, winged altarpieces, and a towering tabernacle, which together offer a rare glimpse into the religious and artistic practices of Central Europe during this era. By analyzing these artworks, researchers have identified patterns of reformations that reflect both local and broader European influences. The approach combines detailed iconographic analysis with historical context, providing a nuanced understanding of how medieval art evolved in response to cultural and religious shifts.
Religious Tourism on the Example of Nation Pilgrim Places in Slovakia (Patronages of the Virgin Mary)
Slovakia boasts a rich tradition of religious tourism, particularly centered around Marian pilgrimage sites. Of the 5925 known church and chapel patronages in Slovakia, 1762 are dedicated to the Virgin Mary, with 329 specifically consecrated to the Seven Sorrows of Our Virgin Mary. Field research identified six nationally significant pilgrimage sites: Marianka, Staré Hory, Levoča, Šaštín, Nitra, and Ľutina. These sites serve as sacred intersections where divine paths meet human journeys, reflecting Slovakia's deep-rooted Christian heritage. The study employed terrain reconnaissance alongside archival and parish document analysis to characterize these pilgrimage destinations, underscoring their cultural and perhaps international significance.
The forgotten Karol Andel (1897–1977) and his contribution to the development of Ethnography, Archaeology and Museology in Slovakia
Karol Andel, a civil servant and amateur collector, significantly contributed to the fields of ethnography, archaeology, and museology in Slovakia from 1897 to 1977. His work challenged the notion that certain regions were prehistoric wastelands by uncovering archaeological sites and amassing ethnographic materials. Through collaborations with leading experts like J. Eisner and V. Budinský-Krička, Andel laid the groundwork for collections in Kysuce, Záhorie, Levoča, Bojnice, and the Slovak National Museum in Bratislava. His lifelong dedication culminated in his appointment as a researcher at the Ethnographic Institute and later the Archaeological Institute of the Slovak Academy of Sciences. This evaluation study highlights Andel's pivotal role in shaping Slovakia's cultural heritage.
Transparent Sonic Sculptures in Site-Specific Intermedia Music
This research introduces the concept of 'transparent sonic sculptures' as a method to preserve and transform unique soundscapes into site-specific intermedia music, drawing inspiration from Marcel Duchamp's Sculpture Musicale and John Cage's 4’33". The approach involves acousmatic composition, which captures environmental sounds with semantic social significance, integrating them into musical projects. Notable examples include Melancholy, a collaboration that repurposed a desolate cowhouse near Levoča into a sonic gallery/concert hall, and Sonic Sculpture of Bin, realized in an abandoned refinery. The study also explores 'sonic photography,' linking it to Roland Barthes' ideas on visual representation, suggesting its potential as an organic extension of sonic art. By blending acoustic elements with conceptual intermedia art, the research demonstrates how soundscapes can be reimagined as dynamic cultural monuments, offering a new paradigm for site-specific musical creation.
Following the Star : Nativity Scenes and Sacred Drama from the Middle Ages to the Baroque
Nativity scenes, originating from medieval Christian pilgrimages to Bethlehem and symbolized by the first sculptural depiction in Rome's Santa Maria Maggiore Cathedral (late 13th century), evolved into a genre blending liturgical function with artistic expression. This study traces their development through Renaissance and Baroque eras, highlighting key works like Arnolfo di Cambio’s group, Giotto’s fresco of Saint Francis’ Miracle of Greccio, and Caravaggio’s novel interpretations. It also explores the integration of mystery play elements, such as shepherds, into nativity scenes to embody the miracle for believers. The study underscores the cultural significance of these scenes in Hungary during the 17th century, including the medieval Adoration of the Shepherds group by Pál Lőcsei (now in Levoča) and contributions from immigrant artists like Georg Schweitzer and Franz Anton Maulbertsch. The research synthesizes historical sources, liturgical practices, and artistic evolution to illustrate the enduring symbolism and adaptability of nativity scenes across centuries.
Falra hányt betűk: késő gótikus falikrónikák a középkori Magyarországon
Late Gothic wall-chronicles, a rarity in international comparison, were found to serve as both decorative and informative elements in parish churches across medieval Hungary. These inscriptions, primarily in Latin but also in Hungarian, documented significant historical events from the 14th to the 16th centuries, including coronations, wars, and local incidents. The study reveals that these chronicles, often located near entrances or in prominent positions, held symbolic value for both literate patricians and illiterate communities, reflecting transformations in Christian culture and local identity-building. Research focused on analyzing surviving examples in Slovakia (Levoča) and Romania (Sibiu), alongside documented but now lost inscriptions, to understand their cultural significance and the context of their creation.
Musical life in urban communities of North-Eastern Slovakia in the period of reformation
Archival research reveals significant shifts in musical culture within North-Eastern Slovakia during the Reformation, marked by the influence of Lutheran urban cantorates from Central Europe. The study highlights how multi-ethnic and multi-confessional dynamics shaped these changes, particularly in major centers like Levoča, Spišský Hrad, Bardejov, Prešov, Kežmarok, and Spišská Nová Ves. Key figures such as J.Fabri, L. Stöckel, J. Plotz, and G. Plotz played pivotal roles in this transformation, blending local musical traditions with imported practices. The research employs a detailed analysis of archival documents to trace the evolution of cantorates, focusing on the contributions of domestic musicians—cantors, organists, and trumpeters—to the cultural landscape.
From church perseverance in authoritarian states to today´s religious inspired tourism
A comparative analysis of Christian pilgrimage dynamics under authoritarian regimes reveals that the popularity and development of religious shrines, such as Fatima in Portugal and Levoča in Slovakia, are significantly influenced by state policies. While Portugal's Fatima shrine thrived even during its fascist regime (1928-1974), Slovakia's Levoča only experienced a revival after democracy was reinstated post-1989. This study underscores the pivotal role of state policies in shaping religious tourism destinations, demonstrating that authoritarian regimes can either constrain or facilitate pilgrimage practices. The research employs a chronological analysis to explore these dynamics, providing insights into how political transitions impact religious manifestations and tourism.
Small Sacral Architecture and Its Greenery in Lower Spiš Region in Slovakia
Research reveals that small roadside sacral structures, predominantly crosses, are integral to the cultural landscapes of Lower Spiš Region in Slovakia. A field mapping study identified 13 such objects along a 66-kilometre historical trade route, with wooden crosses without pedestals being the most common. The oldest and aesthetically significant elements include metal crosses on travertine stone pedestals, while the Baroque roadside chapel of St. John of Nepomuk in Smolník stands out as a registered cultural monument from 1726. Woody plants, notably small-leaved linden trees (Tilia cordata Mill.), accompany these structures, adding to their landscape value. The study employed a methodology that assessed localization, spatial context, technical condition, and greenery, contributing to the preservation of historical legacy in this mining cultural landscape.
Spatial Planning in Localities with Special Historic Values on Examples of Poland and Slovakia
Local development plans in Poland provide more detailed protection for cultural values and monuments compared to those in Slovakia, according to a comparative analysis of spatial planning systems. The study found that Polish planning documents more effectively incorporate actions for the conscious shaping of cultural landscapes and historical object preservation, unlike their Slovak counterparts, which rely heavily on provincial conservators for evaluation. This discrepancy highlights the need for stronger integration of heritage protection measures in Slovak spatial planning procedures.
Marian Midsize Shrines: three itineraries between Portugal and Slovakia
Researchers have identified three distinct itineraries for religious tourism, focusing on Marian midsize shrines between Portugal and Slovakia. These routes, designed to cater to Catholic pilgrims seeking alternatives to major shrines like the Holy Land or Lourdes, combine significant religious sites with towns and cities along the way. The study employed participant observation to gather data, which can serve as a practical tool for travel agents and training material for students, demonstrating how itineraries integrate thematic resources with time and travel management. This approach offers a novel framework for planning religious tourism routes that balance cultural exploration and logistical efficiency.
Sign – symbol – decoration: the relationship of image and text in 16th –17th century Hungarian calendars
Research reveals that 16th–17th century Hungarian calendars and popular works, such as penny books and manuscript song collections, exhibit complex relationships between image and text, blending late Renaissance and Baroque influences. The study highlights non-traditional figures like mermaids/sirens in the 1578 calendar (Kolozsvár-Cluj), which later appeared on 18th-century Calvinist church furniture and ceiling panels in Hungary. Additionally, it analyzes title pages from Upper Hungary calendars (e.g., Calendarium Tyrnaviense) and those by David Frölich (Wrocław, 1623–1646), demonstrating how cultural topoi and archetypes evolved across time and space. The findings underscore the dynamic interplay between visual symbolism and textual content in these works.
An evaluation of soil retention potential as an important factor of water balance in the landscape
Researchers have developed a novel model to assess soil water retention capacity (CWRC) using parameters compatible with Slovakia's vector database of classified soil-ecological units. This model addresses gaps in existing pedotransfer functions (PTF), which rely on readily available data like particle size and organic carbon but often lack precision for complex evaluations. The study presents a spatial distribution of CWRC, highlighting its significance as a critical factor in landscape water balance. Case studies from Levoča and Hriňová demonstrate the model's practical application, offering insights into soil hydrological dynamics. This approach bridges statistical estimation with ecological mapping, providing a more accurate tool for understanding soil-water interactions in Slovak landscapes.
Use of the Suburban Forest Areas for Outdoor Activities
A proposed network of 13 new outdoor activity routes, totaling 94.5 km, could significantly enhance tourism and sport potential in the suburban forests around Levoča, Spišský Hrad. The study analyzed existing transport accessibility (42.15 m/ha) and tourist use, identifying opportunities for hiking, biking, horse riding, roller skating, and cross-country skiing. Alongside these routes, additional service facilities—such as a recreation center, boarding accommodations, parking, and small recreational buildings—were recommended to boost the area's attractiveness and competitiveness.
Central European Connections of Six Manuscript Organ Tablature Books of the Reformation Era from the Region of Zips (Szepes, Spiš)
Sixteen-century organ tablature books from the Levoča region reveal significant connections between Protestant church music and Renaissance compositions, offering invaluable insights into Central European musical practices. These manuscripts, preserved as part of the Leutschau/Lőcse/Levoča Music Collection, utilize Ammerbach’s notation—a system that facilitated the intabulation of vocal and instrumental works—and are linked to notable organists like Johann Plotz, Ján Šimbracký, and Samuel Marckfelner. The study highlights a repertoire blending contemporary Protestant music with works by Catholic Renaissance masters, including Jacob Regnart and Matthäus von Löwenstern. Crucially, these tablatures serve as the sole surviving sources for reconstructing incomplete polyphonic compositions from the 16th and 17th centuries, underscoring their historical significance in musical scholarship.
Príspevok k budovaniu opevnení po mongolskom vpáde na Spiši
New archaeological research on Spiš, Slovakia, reveals that fortifications at Spišský Hrad, previously attributed to the Jiskra family of the 15th century, were actually constructed around mid-13th century in response to the Mongol invasion of 1241. This challenges prior historical interpretations and provides insights into the systematic fortification strategies implemented by the Árpád dynasty across Hungary during the late 13th to early 14th centuries. The study utilizes modern conservation research methods, archival analysis, and interdisciplinary collaboration to examine fortifications at Spišský Hrad, Spišská Kapitula, and Levoča, including unique structures like towers, defensive walls, and a possible refuge in the lower courtyard. These findings offer a clearer understanding of the fortified church settlement of Spišská Kapitula and the fortified town of Levoča, home to the Spiš SAS Community.
Tortula randii(Pottiaceae) New for Slovakia and Comments on Its Distinction fromTortula cernua
A rare moss species, Tortula randii (Pottiaceae), has been identified for the first time in Slovakia, specifically in the travertine spring area of Levoča. This discovery contributes to the understanding of its general distribution and habitat preferences, which include halophilous communities like Scorzonero parviflorae-Juncetum gerardii. The study clarifies that T. randii is distinct from T. cernua, a distinction sometimes disputed by North American bryologists but supported here through literature reviews and field observations. The research provides valuable insights into the biodiversity of Slovakia's UNESCO World Heritage Sites, particularly in areas with unique geological features.
Narratives of Adversity: Jesuits on the Eastern Peripheries of the Habsburg Realms (1640-1773) by Paul Shore (review)
A review of Paul Shore's 'Narratives of Adversity: Jesuits on the Eastern Peripheries of the Habsburg Realms (1640-1773)' reveals that Jesuit efforts to revive Catholicism in eastern Slovakia and northeastern Hungary were significantly shaped by political dynamics, state support, and violent repression. The study highlights a pivotal turning point in the 1670s when Habsburg centralization and anti-non-Catholic measures benefited Jesuits, who often served as chaplains for Habsburg armies. Despite their strategic alliance with the state, Jesuits faced persistent opposition from Protestant communities and were eventually expelled after the Rákóczi rebellion (1703–1711). Shore argues that while the Jesuits maintained a narrative of resilience, their mission lacked ambition and creativity in later years, ultimately becoming obsolete due to external pressures. The analysis is based on extensive archival research, including diaries and records from Jesuit residences.
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