Publications
Do environmental conditions determine whether salt driven decay leads to powdering or flaking in historic Reigate Stone masonry at the Tower of London?
Research at the Tower of London reveals that while environmental conditions influence salt-driven decay in Reigate Stone masonry, they do not solely determine whether it leads to powdering or flaking. The study found that mineralogical composition and pre-existing damage play significant roles in shaping decay patterns. By analyzing salt content using ion chromatography and simulating decay through accelerated ageing, the team demonstrated that NaCl dominates in powdering while NaNO3 is more prevalent in flaking. However, physical variations in the stone, including mineralogy and historical features like crusts and cracks, were more influential than environmental factors in determining decay rates and patterns.
Prisoners, Sanctuary‐Seekers, and Workers: Jews at the Tower of London, 1189–1290
A groundbreaking analysis reveals the Tower of London's pivotal role in medieval Jewish history, serving as a hub for prisoners, sanctuary-seekers, and workers from 1189 to 1290. The study highlights that the Constable of the Tower held unique authority over England's Jewry, including the power to arrest Jews nationwide and preside over legal cases involving them. Notably, between 1278 and 1279, at least 600 Jews were detained on charges of coin-clipping. This research, derived from a comprehensive project by Historic Royal Palaces, is the first dedicated exploration of Jewish experiences at the Tower, offering detailed biographies of every known individual from this period.
The Peculiar Case of a Royal Peculiar: A Problem of Faculty at the Tower of London
A rare surviving example of early Anglo-Norman ecclesiastical architecture, the late eleventh-century Chapel of St John the Evangelist (St John's) within the Tower of London, stands as a testament to the site's layered history. This study delves into the complex faculty issues surrounding the chapel, highlighting its unique significance even among the Tower's many notable features. The research explores the chapel's origins, tracing back to a ninth-century house-church, and examines its role as a burial place for prominent historical figures, including queens Anne Boleyn, Catherine Howard, and Lady Jane Grey, alongside Cardinal John Fisher and Sir Thomas More, who are now venerated as martyrs in the Roman Catholic Church. The study employs historical analysis and architectural context to shed light on the chapel's enduring importance within the Tower complex.
In Situ, Non-Destructive Testing for Evaluating the Role of Pointing Mortar in Preventive Conservation Strategies. A Case-Study on Reigate Stone at the Wardrobe Tower, Tower of London
Research at the Tower of London's Wardrobe Tower reveals that hydraulic lime mortar (NHL3.5) less effectively regulates moisture in Reigate Stone masonry compared to lime putty mortar, yet older NHL mortars can perform similarly despite initial incompatibility. Non-destructive testing over two years showed that while pointing mortar type influences stone moisture regulation, its impact is secondary to the stone's inherent properties and micro-contextual factors like exposure and topography. The study underscores the need for tailored conservation strategies addressing specific decay mechanisms, including additional protective measures against moisture ingress, to ensure sustainable preservation of vulnerable historic masonry.
Assessing the Long-term Success of Reigate Stone Conservation at Hampton Court Palace and the Tower of London
Inherited stone mineralogy, past decay pathways, and current environmental conditions significantly influence the ongoing degradation of Reigate stone, overshadowing the effectiveness of conservation treatments. While wax, limewash, silane, and ammonium tartrate methods have offered partial protection at the Tower of London and Hampton Court Palace, no single treatment has universally halted decay. Non-destructive and minimally-destructive testing revealed that ammonium tartrate's success varies, suggesting that intrinsic stone properties and environmental factors play a more critical role than treatment history in long-term preservation outcomes.
Oxygen isotope dating of oak and elm timbers from the portcullis windlass, Byward Tower, Tower of London
Researchers successfully dated oak and elm timbers from the portcullis windlass mechanism in the Byward Tower of the Tower of London using a novel oxygen isotope dendrochronology method. The study determined that the oak timbers were felled in winter AD 1656/7, while the associated elm shaft was cut after AD 1648. This is the first application of this technique to date elm, demonstrating its potential for dating non-oak species. The findings build on previous dendrochronological efforts that had failed to date these samples, advancing the use of stable oxygen isotopes in archaeological timber analysis.
‘A Desperat Wepon’: Re-Hafted Scythes at Sedgemoor, in Warfare and at the Tower of London
A pair of re-hafted scythes, likely captured from the Duke of Monmouth's rebels at Sedgemoor in 1685 and displayed at the Tower of London for over two centuries, represent a lesser-studied but historically significant weapon used by irregular forces. These blades, part of an inventory listing 81 such weapons in 1686, highlight the Duke's improvisational tactics due to equipment shortages. The scythes, effective in skirmishes and battles since the late Middle Ages, were valued for their propaganda potential and displayed until the 1990s. Their reintroduction to public view underscores the need for further study of this weapon type, which played a role in British and European conflicts.
‘Let us Sin with Salvin’: Architecture and Authority at the Tower of London, 1896–1905
Contrary to prior assumptions, the Office of Works continued significant architectural interventions at the Tower of London beyond the 1880s, extending into the early twentieth century. This study reveals that restoration efforts during 1896–1905 were not merely maintenance but a deliberate strategy by authorities to shape the historical narrative of this UNESCO World Heritage Site. Analyzing previously unexplored architectural drawings from Historic Royal Palaces, the research demonstrates how the Office balanced its role as a military garrison, historic monument, and tourist attraction while navigating growing public and parliamentary demands for preservation. The findings challenge the notion that radical restorations ceased after the 1880s, highlighting instead a sustained effort to control the site's architectural storytelling.
The Beefeaters at the Tower of London, 1826–1914: Icons of Englishness or Britishness?
The Beefeaters at the Tower of London emerged as enduring symbols of British national identity during the 19th century, embodying loyalty to the Crown and historical continuity amidst societal changes. This study reveals how their distinctive uniforms and visible roles served as a unifying force in a multifaceted UK, addressing the complexities of Britishness across its constituent nations. By analyzing the period as one of crisis, the research demonstrates how the monarchy leveraged these figures to reinforce constitutional loyalty and national cohesion.
Shaping the Ordnance Office Collections at the Tower of London: The impact of colonial expansion, diplomacy, and donation in the early nineteenth century
British colonial expansion, diplomatic activities, and military successes significantly reshaped the Ordnance Office collections at the Tower of London during the early 19th century. This period saw a shift toward greater public access and historical accuracy in the museum's displays, extending beyond the well-documented New Horse Armoury to include broader aspects of the collection. The study highlights how these changes reflected national trends while being driven by overseas acquisitions and territorial growth.
Building Opposition at the Early Tudor Tower of London: Thomas More’s Dialogue of Comfort
Thomas More's Dialogue of Comfort against Tribulation (1534), written during his imprisonment at the Tower of London, fundamentally redefined the site’s cultural significance by challenging the royal ideology that had long symbolized monarchical power. Through four progressive transgressions against Henry VIII, More reframed the Tower as a symbol of resistance to royal tyranny, laying the foundation for an early modern tradition of oppositional literary and cultural representations. This study reveals how More’s work subverted the established narrative of the Tower, transforming it from a tool of royal propaganda into an emblem of defiance against authoritarian rule.
“What Citadels, what turrets, and what towers”: Mapping the Tower of London in Thomas Heywood’s Lord Mayors’ Shows
Research reveals that Thomas Heywood, a prominent playwright of the early modern era, challenged the dominant 'royal ideology' surrounding the Tower of London by portraying it as a symbol of opposition to monarchical power. Analyzing 24 extant English history plays from 1579 to ca. 1634—all depicting the Tower in ways that contradicted Crown authority—Heywood's four plays stood out quantitatively and qualitatively, comprising one-sixth of the corpus and surpassing all but Shakespeare in frequency. His works dramatized scenarios such as prisoners escaping, monarchs being imprisoned, and the Tower itself personified resistance to royal injustice. The study also highlights Heywood's broader discourse, including prose works like Englands Elizabeth (1631) and his reissue of A Discourse of the Felicitie of Man, which further criticized royal misuse of the Tower. This research underscores Heywood's pivotal role in shaping oppositional narratives during a critical period of political and social upheaval.
The Tower of London in English Renaissance Drama
The Tower of London's dual symbolism—both as a symbol of royal authority and as an emblem of opposition to the crown—was prominently explored in English Renaissance drama. This study reveals that while Elizabeth I, James I, and Charles I portrayed the Tower as a site of royal magnificence, playwrights like Shakespeare and Marlowe depicted it instead as a space representing non-royal English identity, challenging the monarchy's narrative. Analyzing 24 history plays from 1579 to c. 1634, the research historicizes the Tower's shifting cultural significance, uncovering its complex role in Renaissance discourse.
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