Publications
Chichen Itza and Its Economy at the End of the Classic Period: Tribute, Centralized Redistribution, and Maritime Stations
Chichén Itzá's economy at the end of the Classic Period (10th–11th centuries) was not solely driven by market exchanges but relied significantly on tribute extraction and centralized redistribution. Archaeological evidence suggests that Chichén Itzá, leveraging its military supremacy, imposed tribute on conquered regions experiencing collapse while forming political-economic alliances to acquire sumptuous goods. These commodities reinforced elite power structures and social relations within the northern Yucatán community. The study challenges the dominant market economy model, proposing instead a system where centralized redistribution and tribute played pivotal roles in sustaining Chichén Itzá's economic dominance.
Heads, Skulls, and Sacred Scaffolds. New Studies on Ritual Body Processing and Display in Chichen Itza and Beyond
A new study challenges the notion that skull racks (tzompantli) at Chichen Itza were introduced through foreign influence, revealing instead that they built upon long-standing local practices of ritual body processing and display. Analyzing skeletal remains—including skulls with signs of impalement and mandibles showing perimortem decapitation—from the Osario complex and Caracol astronomical site, alongside iconographic evidence, researchers found that Chichen Itza's ceremonial innovations were rooted in regional traditions rather than external ones. These practices, though less prominent at other Yucatecan urban centers like Nohpat, Kabah, Uxmal, and Dzibilchaltun, demonstrate a broader cultural context for the display of human body segments, complicating the term 'tzompantli.' The study suggests that Chichen Itza's massified violence and corpse exhibition were tied to late religious cults, battles, astronomical cycles, and the symbolic movement of the Feathered Serpent.
Special Section Introduction: Archaeology in Chichen Itza
Archaeological research has challenged long-standing assumptions about the Pre-Hispanic City of Chichen Itza, revealing significant gaps in its historical narrative. Traditionally, Chichen Itza's chronology and cultural events were derived from historical documents and architectural features attributed to non-Maya groups like the Toltecs. However, recent advancements in archaeological studies across Terminal Classic period sites in Yucatan have exposed limitations in these interpretations, leading to a paradigm shift. This summary introduces a special section that explores how modern archaeology is reshaping our understanding of Chichen Itza's social and cultural development during its peak, moving beyond reliance on historical sources.
When East Meets West: Chichen Itza, Tula, and the Postclassic Mesoamerican world
A groundbreaking two-volume study reveals how the ruins of Teotihuacan reshaped Mesoamerican societies during the Epiclassic and Early Postclassic periods, challenging traditional narratives centered on Chichen Itza and Tula. The research demonstrates that Teotihuacan's cultural innovations—such as merging a warrior cult with 'Flower World' symbolism and transforming economic and political structures—served as a foundational model for later societies across the region. By analyzing multiple communities beyond these iconic sites, the study broadens our understanding of post-Classic Mesoamerican development, offering new insights into its cultural evolution.
The Cuadripartite world of Mesoamerica: focused on Chichen Itza
Chichen Itza's Kulkulcan Temple embodies the Mesoamerican concept of a 'cuadripartite world,' where cardinal directions (east, west, south, north) represent not just linear paths but spatial and temporal dimensions shaped by mythological steps of gods. This architectural marvel symbolizes global dominance through its alignment with these directions, reflecting the ruling elite's mastery of calendrical knowledge—a key tool for asserting authority during periods of cultural convergence in Chichen Itza. The study deciphers how the temple's design encodes cosmological narratives, blending astronomical precision with symbolic power to project divine legitimacy and territorial control.
Exploratory data analysis of the visitor’s arrivals to Chichen-Itza´s archaeological site, a case study
A significant portion of visitors to Chichen-Itza are non-Mexican tourists, accounting for 73% of arrivals. This insight emerges from an exploratory data analysis conducted on box office ticket sales spanning December 2016 to December 2018. The study also revealed that 14.4% of tickets were sold to national adults, with a notable distinction between weekdays and free Sunday access for nationals. The remaining 12.6% of tickets fell into 11 categories as per federal law. The analysis identified distinct visitor behaviors, including arrival times and seasonal patterns, which could inform strategic decisions to enhance competitiveness and regional growth. This research provides valuable insights for optimizing visitor management and policy-making at this globally significant archaeological site.
Karst Detection Beneath the Pyramid of El Castillo, Chichen Itza, Mexico, by Non-Invasive ERT-3D Methods
Researchers have uncovered evidence of a potential karst cavity beneath the Pyramid of El Castillo at Chichen Itza, Mexico, using non-invasive 3D Electrical Resistivity Tomography (ERT-3D). This low-resistivity anomaly, likely filled with sweet water, was detected without disturbing the pyramid's structure or historical context. The study demonstrates that specialized ERT arrays can effectively investigate subsoil conditions beneath archaeological buildings, offering insights into their religious significance. Additionally, the method was validated at El Osario pyramid, where a natural cavity had previously been discovered, further confirming its reliability for non-invasive subsoil analysis in World Heritage Sites.
Debating Chichen Itza
A new chronology for Chichen Itza challenges recent scholarly consensus, proposing that the 'Toltec' or Modified Florescent occupation occurred between 950 and 1150 AD, contrary to the previously favored date of 800/850–1000/1050 AD. This study critiques ceramic, radiocarbon, and stratigraphic evidence, arguing that current data supports a tenth-century florescence for Chichen Itza, with no absolute dates or evidence for monumental construction beyond this period. The research rejects proposals of a hiatus at the onset of the Modified Florescent period, instead advocating for a model of continued development of Toltec ideas from the late ninth century onward.
Interior Imaging of El Castillo Pyramid, Chichen Itza, Mexico, Using ERT-3D Methods: Preliminary Results
Preliminary results from a study using Electrical Resistivity Tomography (ERT) reveal the existence of at least two substructures within El Castillo pyramid, a UNESCO World Heritage Site and one of the New Seven Wonders of the World. The first substructure was discovered during restoration in the 1930s, while a second, previously unknown structure has been inferred from resistivity data. This inner chamber is estimated to be around 10 meters high with a base measuring approximately 23 meters per side and may contain an intact rectangular room 3 meters tall. The study employed a novel ERT-3D method, deploying electrodes across the pyramid's nine levels and its base to generate 37,520 observations, with five of ten observation levels processed so far. These findings suggest a more complex architectural history for El Castillo than previously understood.
The Archaeology of Chichen Itza
Chichen Itza's urban growth, architectural development, and interactions with surrounding sites are now better understood through a synthesis of ceramic analysis, stratigraphy, paleoclimatology, and hieroglyphic decipherment. This study resolves long-standing debates about its Terminal Classic or Postclassic classification by integrating multiple lines of evidence, offering a refined timeline for construction phases and cultural transitions. The research challenges traditional narratives by providing new data on settlement patterns and ethnohistoric sources, shedding light on the site's political and economic dynamics during Mesoamerica's Late Classic to Early Postclassic periods.
The Castillo-sub at Chichen Itza
Research on the Castillo-sub at Chichen Itza reveals that the pyramid, possibly built over a cenote and aligned with astronomical phenomena, may have served dual roles: as a royal burial site and later as a public calendrical structure tied to the cult of the Feathered Serpent. The study examines early descriptions, explorations, and recent discoveries, including intact offerings from the 1930s, such as a chacmool, jaguar throne, and femurs embedded in walls, suggesting ritualistic sacrificial practices. Additionally, the pyramid's orientation and placement hint at its significance in both astronomical observations and topographical features.
The Osario of Chichen Itza
Research on the Osario of Chichen Itza reveals that this radial temple, coeval with the Temple of the Warriors, symbolized Flower Mountain—a sacred place of abundance and afterlife for warriors. The study combines early 20th-century explorations with recent INAH excavations to propose that the cave beneath the temple served as a final resting place for cremated warrior remains, aligning with central Mexican funeral traditions. This interpretation suggests the Osario was not only an architectural parallel to the Castillo but also a significant cultural and spiritual site, rewarding warriors for their contributions to trade and economic prosperity.
A Special ERT-3D Array Carried Out to Investigate the Subsoil of the Pyramid El Castillo, Chichen Itza, Mexico
Researchers identified a low-resistivity body beneath the Pyramid El Castillo at Chichen Itza, Mexico, suggesting the presence of a sinkhole filled with sweet water. This finding builds on previous ground-penetrating radar (GPR) studies that hinted at man-made tunnels in the limestone subsoil. To investigate this further, scientists employed a specialized 3D electrical resistivity tomography (ERT-3D) array, using 96 flat-surface electrodes arranged in a square geometry around the pyramid. This method allowed for 8,500 apparent resistivity observations across a depth of 25 meters, providing a detailed subsurface profile. The study highlights the potential of ERT-3D arrays to overcome challenges posed by traditional geophysical methods when applied to ancient structures, offering new insights into the hidden complexities of UNESCO World Heritage Sites.
Preserving the cultural identity of a World Heritage Site: the impact of Chichen Itza’s souvenir vendors
Excessive and often intrusive souvenir vending at Chichen Itza, a UNESCO World Heritage Site (WHS), undermines both visitor experience and the site's cultural authenticity. A study combining participant observation, photography, and social media analysis revealed that Maya-descent vendors' retail activities—perceived as economically driven rather than culturally rooted—negatively impact the site's socio-cultural sustainability. While the findings suggest a need for stakeholder reforms to balance economic benefits with heritage preservation, they also highlight broader challenges in managing WHSs where commercialization and political influence risk long-term sustainability. Recommendations include stricter government oversight, re-evaluation of socio-economic benefits, and efforts to reconcile cultural identity with contemporary Mexican society.
Alternative narratives and missing data: refining the chronology of Chichen Itza
A refined chronology for the ancient Maya city of Chichen Itza, based on Bayesian calibration of radiocarbon determinations from recent stratigraphic excavations at the Great Terrace, offers a more precise framework for understanding its occupation dynamics during the 9th to early 11th centuries AD. This study integrates multiple lines of evidence—hieroglyphic inscriptions, ethnohistorical sources, ceramic typologies, and architectural styles—to address inconsistencies in previous chronologies. Key insights include the potential temporary decline of Chichen Itza in the mid-10th century and its eventual collapse in the 11th century. Future research is directed toward elucidating earlier settlement phases during the Preclassic and Early Classic periods.
Maya Coastal Production, Exchange, Life Style, and Population Mobility: a View from the Port of Xcambo, Yucatan, Mexico
Research at the coastal site of Xcambo, Mexico, reveals a dynamic shift in Classic period Maya trade networks, marked by increasing diversity and geographic mobility among merchants. By integrating archaeological, bioarchaeological, and chemical analyses, the study documents a reorientation in exchange routes linking Xcambo to broader Maya and Veracruz regions. This period also saw growing cultural affiliations, likely reflecting intensified trade dynamics that preceded the so-called 'Maya collapse' around 700 AD. The findings suggest the rise of Chichen Itza as a dominant merchant power, which may have contributed to Xcambo's rapid decline.
The Meaning Of Volcanic Ash Characteristics Found In The Archaeological Pottery Of Chichen Itza, Yucatan, Mexico
Archaeological pottery from Chichen Itza, Yucatan, Mexico, reveals that volcanic materials used as temper originated from strong eruptions during the Classic and Postclassic periods of Mayan civilization. Petrographic analysis identified fresh, homogeneous glass shards and pumice fragments, consistent with airborne volcanic ash, alongside variable weathered lithic fragments indicating pyroclastic origin. These findings suggest that the Mayans incorporated tephra from different time-lapse eruptions into their pottery, providing evidence of volcanic activity's influence on ancient civilization.
Terminal Classic Circular Architecture in the Sibun Valley, Belize
Recent archaeological research in Belize's Sibun Valley has uncovered Terminal Classic circular shrines, dating to the ninth century, which are linked to Chichen Itza through ceramics and radiocarbon analysis. These findings challenge the notion that such architecture was a 'non-Classic' trait, suggesting instead a direct connection between the Gulf lowlands and northern Yucatan. The study proposes two non-mutually exclusive scenarios: local elites may have adopted this style after pilgrimages to Chichen Itza for political ceremonies, or small-scale migration of Chontal-Itza merchants along the Caribbean coast facilitated cultural exchange. By mapping a network of sites along rivers and coasts, the research offers new insights into the trade routes and cultural dynamics of the region during this period.
Chichen-Itza y Tula Comentarios a un Ensayo
A groundbreaking re-evaluation of the cultural influences between Chichén-Itzá and Tula challenges the prevailing consensus among researchers. While most scholars attribute distinctive elements in Chichén-Itzá to Toltec influence, George Kubler's essay argues these features likely originated in the Maya region or elsewhere before being adopted by Tula. This counter-narrative, published in Estudios de Cultura Maya, reshapes our understanding of architectural and cultural diffusion between Mesoamerican civilizations, emphasizing the need to trace origins beyond the Toltec period.
Kakupacal and the Itzas
A series of five glyphs, frequently found at Chichen Itza, has been identified as 'Kakupacal,' the name of a valorous captain of the Itzas. This discovery sheds light on historical and glyphic contexts previously overlooked due to limited focus in earlier studies. The current research emphasizes the historic significance of this identification, supported by phonetic evidence, contextual analysis indicating it is a personal name, and references to the known captain of the Itzas. The study bridges gaps between script interpretation and historical records, offering new insights into Maya epigraphy and history.
The Yabnal-Motul Ceramic Complex of the Late Classic Period at Chichen Itza
A new ceramic complex, Yabnal-Motul, has been identified at Chichen Itza, dating to the Late Classic period and corresponding with the Motul ceramic complex of Mayapan. This discovery, based on extensive excavations across the site, reveals a rich variety of local and imported wares, including high-quality Slate Ware characterized by volcanic ash temper, which reflects a 600-year tradition in northern Yucatan. The study shifts focus from Terminal Classic to Postclassic ceramics, providing significant insights into Chichen Itza's chronology and its broader historical context within the northern plains.
The travels of Maya merchants in the ninth and tenth centuries ad : investigations at Xuenkal and the Greater Cupul Province, Yucatan, Mexico
Archaeological research reveals the critical role of long-distance Maya merchants in the ninth and tenth centuries AD, who transported goods such as shell, obsidian, and ornaments from coastal ports to inland centers like Chichen Itza in exchange for salt. By analyzing data from sites along trade routes, including Xuenkal, the study provides insights into regional changes during Chichen Itza's expansion. Combining excavations with view-shed and travel-time analyses, it offers a detailed perspective on the experiences of traders, highlighting their importance in sustaining the Classic Maya economy.
Cloth Production and Economic Intensification in the Area Surrounding Chichen Itza
Archaeological evidence from Xuenkal, north of Chichén Itzá, reveals that inhabitants intensified cloth production during the Terminal Classic Period (A.D. 900–1000), likely in response to increased tribute demands from the dominant regional power. Analysis of spindle whorls suggests a rapid adaptation to economic pressures, with spinning and weaving—traditionally associated with women—reinforcing both material output for the state and its gender ideology. This study enhances understanding of Maya cloth production and Chichén Itzá's influence on surrounding sites during its peak political dominance.
Political Structure, Military Training, and Ideology at Chichen Itza
A paramount king, identified with the sun, ruled tenth-century Chichen Itza alongside a high priest and a political-military elite symbolized by an S-shaped serpent. The Temple of the Wall Panels reveals the initiation and afterlife journey of jaguar-warriors, paralleling Aztec warrior beliefs described by Sahagún. These warriors, depicted transforming into birds or butterflies, suggest shared Teotihuacan ideologies. The temple's architecture and iconography imply it served as a warrior residence, distinct from atelpochcalli, highlighting the community's collective military and religious roles.
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