Publications
Memories and Social Struggles in Contemporary Bolivia
Collective memories serve as powerful platforms structuring activism during periods of intense social struggle and political change, according to research on Bolivia's contemporary conflicts. The study reveals that activists leverage historical narratives—such as the anti-colonial rebellion of Tupac Katari and Bartolina Sisa, the War of the Pacific, and the rise and fall of Potosí—as constitutive and instrumental tools in their movements. These memories exhibit path-dependent continuity, shaping activism during the 'Gas War' (2003), conflicts in El Alto, and the 2010 civic strike in Potosí. The analysis employs three case studies to demonstrate how such narratives are mobilized to make sense of contemporary struggles, offering an innovative framework for understanding memory's role in social movements.
Efectos sociales y laborales en las familias del Municipio de Potosí ocasionadas por el COVID-19
COVID-19 significantly exacerbated social and labor challenges for families in the Municipality of Potosí, Bolivia. The study revealed that intra-family conflicts were predominantly driven by economic instability, unemployment, and informality in regional productive activities, compounded by the risk of coronavirus infection or death. Methodologically, the research adopted a descriptive approach, gathering data from surveys of union federation directors—considered highly vulnerable to the pandemic—and interviews with experts in economics, social services, and health, selected through intentional sampling. This comprehensive analysis underscores the profound impact of the pandemic on livelihoods and family dynamics in one of Latin America's most affected regions.
Object, Room, Dwelling: Material Culture and the Indigenous City in the Colonial Andes
Colonial Andean cities preserved Indigenous and mestiza cultural, social, and architectural identities despite Spanish influence. This study reveals that material culture—such as the topu (Indigenous dress pin) and household objects—and domestic structures encoded Indigenous urban experiences. Analyzing notarial and judicial records from Arequipa, La Plata (Sucre), and Potosí (1500s–1600s), researchers found that inventories of city dwellers' possessions and home designs reflected enduring Indigenous practices. The findings demonstrate how built environments and everyday objects served as markers of resistance and continuity in colonial spaces.
Potosí in the Global Silver Age (16th—19th Centuries)
Potosí, Bolivia, stands out as the world's single-richest silver deposit, playing a pivotal role in global capitalism during the 16th to 19th centuries. This book delves into the political economy of silver production and its circulation, revealing how Potosí's mining activities shaped both local and global landscapes. It examines the establishment and evolution of a complex infrastructure, highlighting changes over time and their impact on human and environmental systems. The study integrates geology, sacred spaces, technical knowledge, environmental history, labor dynamics, and silver flows, offering a multidisciplinary perspective. Based on extensive archival research by 11 international contributors, this work provides cutting-edge insights into Potosí's significance as a major commodity producer.
Potosí Revisited
Research reveals that the exploitation of the Potosí mine predates the Spanish conquest, dating back to the Tiwanaku collapse around 1000–1100 AD. The study integrates metallogenic processes, archival documents, linguistic analysis, and archaeology to demonstrate a continuous religious and cultural connection between pre-Hispanic Andean knowledge and mining practices. Notably, the discovery of a shrine guarded by felines in 1545 is linked to indigenous metallogenic understanding, which was intertwined with religious beliefs, including the worship of a feline deity tied to the Sun cult. The Collas, a Pukina-speaking chiefdom, likely originated from Tiwanaku, and their shamanic cults persisted through Inca integration, reflecting enduring spiritual and political dynamics in Andean mining traditions.
The Silver of Potosí, 1580–1630
Potosí silver dominated Latin American silver production between 1580 and 1630, constituting nearly all of Peru's output during that period. The study reveals three primary export routes: illegal Pacific trade to New Spain and China, the Portobelo-Seville connection, and the Buenos Aires-Iberian Peninsula-Africa route. Peruleros, key agents in silver mobilization, played a crucial role in distributing this metal capital globally, particularly to China. Potosí emerged as both a major producer-distributor and a hub for international goods consumption, positioning it as a pivotal node in early economic globalization.
Transmission Vector of E. Coli in Different Areas of the City of Potosí and Its Impact on the SDGs of the 2030 Agenda
A concerning environmental health threat has been identified in the City of Potosí, where the transmission of E. coli poses significant risks to public health and well-being. The study reveals that many areas lack adequate prevention mechanisms, exacerbating a pressing epidemiological issue. Using a descriptive methodology with a cross-sectional approach, researchers assessed the incidence of E. coli across different regions, highlighting its potential impact on the 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) outlined in the UN's 2030 Agenda. The findings underscore the need for urgent action to mitigate or eradicate the spread of this bacterium, which not only affects health outcomes but also threatens regional sustainability efforts.
Monitoreo ambiental de concentración de aire saturado y partículas PM2.5 para la prevención de la Salud Ocupacional en la Ciudad de Potosí a 4000m.s.n.m.
Densely concentrated or saturated air clouds significantly increase the risk of SARS-CoV-2 transmission, particularly in high-altitude urban environments like Potosí (4000m.a.s.l.). Research indicates that such conditions, exceeding climate comfort levels (45% to 70%), elevate the likelihood of COVID-19 contagion through aerosolized particles. The study highlights that symptomatic individuals, as well as those presymptomatic or asymptomatic, can spread the virus via air clouds adhering to clothing or biological systems. Environmental monitoring of saturated air and PM2.5 particles in health facilities—especially dental and emergency settings—revealed critical gaps in ventilation, exacerbating transmission risks during peak occupancy. The findings underscore the need for improved ventilation mechanisms to mitigate aerosol-based transmission in densely populated or poorly ventilated spaces.
Pandemic in Potosí
A devastating and highly contagious disease, likely the most destructive in South America since the Spanish conquest, struck Potosí in 1719, killing over a third of its population within a year. This 'Gran Peste' was documented extensively by local historian Bartolomé Arzáns de Orsúa y Vela, who lived through the pandemic and attributed it with cosmic significance. His narrative, translated for the first time, provides rich details on therapeutics, devotional life, class relations, gender, race, and conceptions of illness during this major public health crisis. The account also offers a comparative perspective on past and present disease encounters, contributing valuable insights to fields such as Latin American history, history of medicine, urban studies, and epidemiology.
Mining City: Potosí - Potosí: The Silver City That Changed the World. By Kris Lane. Oakland: University of California Press, 2019. Pp. 272. Illustrations. Maps. Appendix. Glossary. Notes. Bibliographical essay. Select bibliography. Index. $32.95 cloth.
Potosí, the UNESCO World Heritage Site, stands as a testament to the profound impact of silver mining on global history. Kris Lane's 'Mining City: Potosí' reveals how this Bolivian city, once the world's largest silver producer, reshaped economies and societies from the 16th to 20th centuries. The book highlights Potosí's role in fueling European wealth, driving inflation through the influx of American silver, and creating a complex social structure that reflected colonial power dynamics. Lane employs a multidisciplinary approach, integrating historical records, economic data, and archaeological evidence to unravel the city's layered narratives. This comprehensive analysis underscores Potosí's significance not only as an industrial marvel but also as a microcosm of global interconnectedness during the early modern period.
Potosí: the silver city that changed the world
Potosí, the historic silver city in Bolivia, stands as a pivotal case study in global economic and social transformation. Kris Lane's work reveals how Potosí's vast silver deposits, discovered in 1545, fueled the Spanish Empire's economy, reshaping global trade networks and labor systems. The research employs a 'longue durée' approach, tracing Potosí's evolution from its founding to the wars of independence, highlighting its role as a microcosm of colonial exploitation and indigenous resilience. This study underscores Potosí's enduring legacy in shaping world history through its economic dominance and complex social dynamics.
Potosí: The Silver City That Changed The World
Potosí, the historic silver city in Bolivia, stands as a testament to the profound global impact of its silver mining during colonial times. The study highlights how Potosí's vast silver deposits, exploited extensively from the 16th century onward, became the backbone of the Spanish Empire's economy and reshaped global trade dynamics. The research underscores the city's role in facilitating the transatlantic slave trade, as African labor was brought to sustain the grueling mining operations. Additionally, it explores Potosí's architectural and urban development, which reflects the convergence of European, Indigenous, and African influences, creating a unique cultural and historical landscape. The study employs archival research and historical analysis to trace the city's economic significance, its societal transformations, and its enduring legacy as a UNESCO World Heritage Site.
Potosí: The Silver City That Changed the World
Potosí is recognized as one of the most significant historical subjects due to its extraordinary silver mines, which played a pivotal role in global trade, colonial society, and environmental degradation. Kris Lane's comprehensive study, 'Potosí: The Silver City That Changed the World,' highlights the city's dual nature—innovation and creation alongside archetypal violence against humans and their environment. The research meticulously uses primary sources, including colonial writings, notary records, and judicial cases from Bolivian archives, along with images and photographs, to present a nuanced narrative of Potosí's history from its discovery in 1545 through the mid-twentieth century. This approach challenges readers to confront the moral ambiguities embedded in Potosí's complex history, offering insights relevant to global historical settings.
Indium Mineralization in the Volcanic Dome-Hosted Ánimas–Chocaya–Siete Suyos Polymetallic Deposit, Potosí, Bolivia
Researchers have identified the primary stage of indium mineralization in the Ánimas–Chocaya–Siete Suyos polymetallic deposit, located within the UNESCO World Heritage Site of Potosí, Bolivia. The study reveals that indium enrichment is predominantly associated with the intermediate-sulfidation stage, particularly in sphalerite and stannite minerals, where concentrations can reach up to 9.66 wt.% In and 4.11 wt.% In, respectively. This finding challenges previous assumptions about the distribution of indium in such deposits. The study employed a combination of petrographic analysis and in situ mineral geochemistry, examining multiple veins across three mines. A notable discovery was the positive correlation between atomic concentrations of indium and copper in sphalerite, suggesting that copper availability in mineralizing fluids is crucial for indium incorporation. This insight provides new avenues for understanding and potentially exploiting indium-rich deposits globally.
Kris Lane. Potosí: The Silver City That Changed the World.
Potosí's Cerro Rico, discovered in 1545, became the world's richest silver mine, fueling the Castilian Crown's economy and global trade. Kris Lane's book traces its impact from 1545 to Bolivia's independence in 1825, revealing how Potosí silver shaped economic systems and political power. The research highlights the mine's role in financing European expansion, minting high-value coins like the real de a ocho, and sustaining the Catholic Church's influence. Lane's approach combines historical narrative with economic analysis, supported by chroniclers' accounts and innovative experiments, such as Emmanuel Le Roy Ladurie's tracing of Potosí silver in global circulations, demonstrating its enduring legacy.
Multilingualism and mixed language in the mines of Potosí (Bolivia)
A specialized mining lexicon emerged in Potosí, Bolivia, during its colonial heyday (c. 1610), blending Spanish, Quechua, and Aymara elements to such an extent that the first dedicated vocabulary was documented in 1610. This unique language served as a bridge between free indigenous workers—likely speaking a mix of Spanish and Quechua—and forced laborers (mitayos), possibly communicating in a combination of Aymara and Quechua. The study, employing historical sociolinguistics, reveals how linguistic contact and multilingualism shaped this distinct mining language, contributing to Potosí's status as one of the largest cities in the Western hemisphere at the time.
Potosi
Potosí stands as a testament to the profound economic and social transformations wrought by colonial exploitation. The Cerro Rico, or 'Rich Hill,' became the world's greatest silver source in the 16th century, fueling global trade from Istanbul to Beijing. Kris Lane's interpretive history reveals Potosí's rise and decline, highlighting its role in shaping the world economy while detailing the environmental and social devastation caused by rampant colonial practices. The narrative brings to life the diverse inhabitants—from native workers and African slaves to elite merchants—offering a vivid portrayal of excess, hardship, and resilience during boom and bust periods.
Spatial and Temporal Controls on the Distribution of Indium in Xenothermal Vein-Deposits: The Huari Huari District, Potosí, Bolivia
Research reveals that indium (In) in the Huari Huari district of Potosí, Bolivia, is primarily concentrated in iron-rich sphalerite and stannite, with its distribution strongly influenced by copper activity. The study found that In incorporation into sphalerite occurs via a coupled substitution mechanism involving Cu+ and In3+, while in stannite, it follows an In3+ ↔ (Cu+ + ½ Sn4+) substitution. Coexisting sphalerite and stannite yielded the highest In concentrations at temperatures between 350–250 °C. The research used paragenetic sequence analysis, compositional studies of sphalerite, and district-scale spatial distribution to constrain these findings. This insight sheds light on the controls governing critical metal accumulation in xenothermal vein deposits.
The Difficult Legacy of Mining in Past and Contemporary Potosí and Ouro Preto
Colonial mining in Potosí (Bolivia) and Ouro Preto (Brazil) left a 'difficult legacy' marked by environmental degradation, racial violence, and exploitation of indigenous and African populations. While these cities symbolize the origins of global capitalism due to their silver and gold wealth, official heritage narratives often omit the atrocities tied to mining. The study reveals that local perceptions and urban spaces still reflect these excluded histories. As Latin America grapples with reinventing national identities without repeating extractivist patterns, accounting for this complex legacy becomes crucial. The research analyzes colonial depictions in heritage policies and contrasts them with contemporary tensions between preservation and ongoing mining activities.
Bitcoin and Potosí Silver: Historical Perspectives on Cryptocurrency
Bitcoin, often hailed as a revolutionary digital currency, shares deep historical roots with traditional metalist currency regimes, particularly those tied to colonial silver mining. A study comparing Bitcoin's architecture to the global currency system established by the New World silver peso—centered around the Cerro Rico de Potosí in colonial South America—reveals striking parallels in resource extraction, labor exploitation, and ecological impact. The research introduces the concept of 'cryptoforming,' suggesting that Bitcoin's digital mining process mirrors the terraforming effects of historical metal mining, reshaping both economies and environments on a massive scale. By interrogating these connections, the study provides a critical lens to understand Bitcoin's implications for resources, labor, energy, and ecology.
Origin of the El Dragón Selenium Mineralization, Quijarro Province, Potosí, Bolivia
A re-examination of the El Dragón selenium deposit in Potosí, Bolivia, reveals five distinct episodes of fault formation and mineralization spanning from 12 million years ago to the present. The study identified several new or near-endmember minerals, including petříčekite, krut’aite, penroseite, and a previously unknown copper-nickel-selenium mineral (CuNi₂Se₄). These findings suggest that highly oxidized, metal-rich fluids with exceptional selenium fugacities (log fSe₂ between −14.5 and −11.2) interacted with black shale and siltstone, leading to the deposition of selenium minerals. The source of selenium and associated metals likely originates from a neighboring Kupferschiefer-type black shale, rich in pyrite and organic matter, where reductive conditions facilitated selenate reduction and elemental selenium precipitation.
Working Silver for the World: Mining Labor and Popular Economy in Colonial Potosí
Colonial Potosí's silver mining labor system was fundamentally shaped by indigenous workers, challenging the traditional narrative of Spanish dominance. This study reveals how coerced and free labor—mitayos and mingas—interacted with self-employed k’ajchas and rudimentary ore mills (trapiches) to contest Spanish property rights over mines and mills. It also highlights the pivotal role of women in refining and trading ores, contradicting conventional gender assumptions about mining labor. By the 18th century, a diverse popular economy had emerged, breaking the Spanish monopoly on production. The research analyzes historical records to demonstrate these dynamics, offering new insights into the agency of indigenous workers and the evolution of Potosí's economic landscape.
Dynamics of Continuity and Change: Shifts in Labour Relations in the Potosí Mines (1680–1812)
While the mita system of forced labor dominated Potosí's silver mines from the late 16th to early 19th centuries, significant shifts and alternative forms of work emerged during this period. This study reveals that labour relations were not static but dynamically influenced by the Spanish monarchy's policies, which prioritized revenue generation, as well as by the actions of both mine entrepreneurs and workers—whether unfree, free, or self-employed. Analyzing archival records and policy documents from 1680 to 1812, the research demonstrates how these interactions reshaped labour dynamics, challenging the perception of the mita as a monolithic system.
The Iterated Mountain: Things as Signs in Potosí
Mining activities at the iconic Cerro Rico de Potosí, part of a UNESCO World Heritage Site and central to Bolivian national identity, reveal a complex interplay between material extraction and spiritual economies. The study uses Peircean semiotics—linguistic materialism—to demonstrate how objects, from massive mountains to miniature artifacts, function as material signs within distributed socio-material networks. These networks sustain mineral production, monetary exchange, and cultural practices, including a significant folkloric festival. By challenging dualistic frameworks—such as body/mind or matter/spirit—that persist in colonial Christianity and modern science, the research offers a nuanced critique of ontological approaches in anthropology, highlighting how material signage mediates both economic and spiritual dimensions of global capitalism.
Fajar/ceñir/envolver. Chumpi y fajas. Objetos y prácticas de vestir de indias y guaguas en Potosí y La Plata, siglos XVI y XVII
Indigenous women and babies in colonial Potosí and La Plata (16th–17th centuries) adapted traditional garment practices, particularly the use of chumpi or girdles, to navigate new social and political realities. This study reveals how belting, binding, and wrapping practices were not only functional but also carried cultural significance, reflecting indigenous agency in reshaping colonial dress norms. By analyzing the term 'chumpi' within its broader vestimentary network, researchers demonstrate the dynamic interplay between material culture and identity under Spanish rule. The findings highlight the resilience of indigenous sartorial traditions amid policy imposition, offering a nuanced perspective on cultural negotiation in early colonial urban spaces.
Possible Health Effects of Living in Proximity to Mining Sites Near Potosí, Bolivia
Living near mining sites in the Potosí region of Bolivia is associated with significant health risks, including higher frequencies of hypertension, hematuria (blood in urine), and ketonuria (ketones in urine). A study comparing adults from mining and non-mining villages found that those exposed to mine-contaminated water and consuming locally farmed grains had a 4.3 times greater risk of hematuria. Elevated blood lead levels were also observed in participants with hematuria, suggesting a link between metal exposure and kidney damage. These findings underscore the need for environmental regulations to mitigate toxic metal contamination near mining areas.
Emigración potosina en el siglo XVIII: el linaje Díaz en Calbuco
A rare genealogical and historical record traces the lineage of a Potosí emigrant who settled in Calbuco, Chile, during the 18th century. Spanning nearly two centuries, the study documents approximately thirty descendants linked to this male lineage, offering insights into migration patterns between Spanish colonial territories. By analyzing archival sources, the research reconstructs family branches and provides a unique perspective on transregional connections in Latin America's colonial history.
A History of Mining in Latin America: From the Colonial Era to the Present
Mining in Latin America, from the colonial era to the present, has played a pivotal role in shaping global capitalism and regional economies. The discovery of silver in the New World enriched Spain and fueled international trade, while modern mining provided essential industrial minerals. However, this economic boom often came at a cost, leaving behind environmental damage and widespread health issues among miners. Kendall W. Brown's study, focusing on Potosí and Bolivia, reveals that while mining launched boomtowns and regional trade networks, it also perpetuated abusive labor practices such as the mita system and debt peonage. The research combines historical narrative with archival data to highlight the complex legacy of mining, which includes both economic development and social exploitation. Brown's findings underscore the dual nature of mining—its potential for prosperity versus its enduring consequences on communities and environments.
Dieta y Uso de Animales en el Potosí Colonial
A zooarchaeological study of colonial sites in Potosí, Bolivia, reveals distinct dietary practices between indigenous workers and Spanish residents during the 16th–17th centuries. While indigenous communities in Porco primarily relied on local Andean fauna, Spanish residents in Tarapaya incorporated a diverse range of Eurasian animals and fish, overcoming logistical challenges to sustain their traditional diet. This contrast highlights how colonial fusion of Eurasian and Andean resources shaped unique culinary practices in Upper Peru, differing from broader patterns in the Americas. The research combines excavation data with zooarchaeological analysis to reconstruct these dietary shifts.
The Spectacular City, Mexico, and Colonial Hispanic Literary Culture
Colonial Hispanic literary culture, particularly in Spanish American cities, is characterized by a complex interplay of moral, racial, and sexual coding that reflects both the imperial dream of order and the heterogeneous reality of urban spaces. Stephanie Merrim's study reveals how writers such as Hernán Cortés, Bernardo de Balbuena, and Sor Juana Inés de la Cruz, among others, engaged with this duality through their depictions of cities like Mexico City, Potosí, and Lima, using classical, biblical, European, and Amerindian sources to craft their narratives. The research contrasts Renaissance and Baroque visions, demonstrating that creole writers sought to assert their cultural nationalism while navigating the complexities of colonial society. Merrim's analysis also highlights an epistemological aperture within Western-based texts, exemplified by Sor Juana's critical engagement with Athanasius Kircher's works, which underscores the limits of knowledge during this period.
The Potosi principle: religious prosociality fosters self-organization of larger communities under extreme natural and economic conditions
In colonial Potosí, religious rituals and miracles served as crucial mechanisms for social stability and cooperation among diverse ethnic and religious groups during periods of extreme natural and economic hardship. This study reveals that cycles of religious performance not only mitigated social upheaval but also facilitated native community participation in broader societal structures, ensuring the city's role in the Spanish empire's silver economy. The research combines traditional humanistic analysis with advanced graph modeling to map religious cycles, social networks, and historical behaviors, demonstrating religion's pivotal role in self-organization during turbulence. This multidisciplinary approach offers a robust methodology for addressing sociological, historical, and literary challenges.
"This lofty mountain of silver could conquer the whole world": Potosí and the political ecology of underdevelopment, 1545-1800
Potosí, with its vast silver deposits, became the epicenter of a commodity revolution that reshaped Peru's socio-ecological landscape between 1545 and 1800. This period marked a pivotal moment in the world ecological revolution, where primitive accumulation—facilitated by the mita system—enabled the colonial state to exploit a large, low-cost labor force amid demographic decline. Unlike New Spain’s dispersed silver frontiers, Potosí's centralized mining frontier strengthened imperial control while simultaneously disrupting and transforming premodern socio-ecological systems. The study highlights how historical capitalism thrives by exploiting and destabilizing complex ecological relationships, leaving lasting impacts on the region.
Chronicling Women's Containment in Bartolomé Arzáns de Orsúa y Vela's History of Potosí
Bartolomé Arzáns de Orsúa y Vela's Historia de la Villa Imperial de Potosí (1705–1736) offers a unique lens on the precarious social status of women in colonial Potosí, revealing how societal anxieties about honor and reputation shaped their lives. The chronicle contrasts 'good' women—dutiful wives, nuns, or daughters—with 'bad' women—adulteresses, sorceresses, or prostitutes—reflecting broader humanist and Counter-Reformation influences. Arzáns' focus on female deviance mirrors Spain's efforts to contain wayward women through legal and institutional means, such as workhouses and prisons, while also reflecting the heightened control over African, indigenous, and mixed-race populations in colonial Latin America. The study highlights how these binary categorizations reveal the lived experiences of women during the colonial period, offering insights into gender dynamics and social order.
El Cerro de Potosí y el Dios Pachacámac
The Cerro de Potosí, revered as the most significant sanctuary of its region, was hidden from Spanish colonizers due to its sacred status dedicated to the deity Pachacámac. Historical testimonies, including those by Arzans de Orsúa y Vela (1736) and traditions near the Salar de Uyuni, affirm that this 'Apu' or mountain lord was associated with Pachacámac, a god of the subterranean world. Archaeological evidence, such as a 16th-century sacrifice at Lake Titicaca, further supports the presence of this deity in the Collasuyo region. The study highlights how the Inca later introduced solar worship, while Spanish colonizers reinterpreted the Cerro as an embodiment of the Virgin Mary, linking it to Pachamama or Mother Earth.
Procesamiento de Metales Durante el Horizonte Medio en el Altiplano Surandino (Escaramayu, Pulacayo, Potosí, Bolivia)
Archaeological research at the Pulacayo site (Escaramayu, Potosí, Bolivia) reveals evidence of sophisticated metal processing during the Middle Horizon (c. 500–900 CE). Four metallurgical furnaces, associated with Middle Horizon structures, were identified, three used for smelting and one likely for refining metals in ceramic crucibles. Isotope analysis of slag, metals, and minerals confirms that the ore processed originated from nearby polimetallic deposits (lead, silver, copper, zinc), linking local extraction to advanced metallurgical techniques. This discovery underscores the region's technological sophistication during a pivotal period in Andean prehistory.
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