Publications
Numerical and Experimental Seismic Characterization of Byblos Site in Lebanon
A seismic study of Byblos, Lebanon, reveals significant variations in ground motion due to geological and topographic site effects, with potential resonance from soft, shallow layers. Using field surveys that included ambient vibration recordings, surface waves, and 2D seismic arrays, researchers identified multiple resonant frequency peaks indicative of impedance contrasts and lateral subsurface stiffness variations. These findings were validated through a combination of numerical models and experimental observations, marking a critical step in the seismic microzoning of Byblos. The study highlights the influence of fractured rocks and anthropic deposits on seismic ground motions, offering new insights into the area's seismic hazards and contributing to enhanced resilience and sustainability efforts.
Byblos. A legacy unearthed
Byblos, one of the oldest continuously inhabited cities in the world, stands out for its profound historical and cultural significance spanning nearly 8900 years. This city, renowned as a preeminent port and religious center from around 3200 BC, played a pivotal role in Mediterranean history due to its strategic location near Mount Lebanon's cedar forests and its close ties with ancient Egyptian pharaohs. Byblos is also synonymous with writing, contributing the term for 'book' to the Greek language. The anthology 'Byblos: A Legacy Unearthed' compiles extensive research from leading international experts, covering archaeological expeditions and recent discoveries that illuminate the city's history from Neolithic origins through the Medieval era. This collaborative effort between the National Museum of Antiquities (The Netherlands) and Lebanon's Ministry of Culture offers a comprehensive, lavishly illustrated exploration of Byblos' enduring legacy.
Evaluating the Landscape and Ecological Aspects of Urban Planning in Byblos: A Multi-Faceted Approach to Assessing Urban Forests
A multi-faceted analysis of Byblos, a UNESCO World Heritage site, reveals critical insights into its urban and peri-urban forests (UPFs), threatened by rapid urbanization. The study found that 28% of the city's canopy cover is concentrated in the northeastern region, with native tree species comprising 30% of the total. Significant variations in tree diversity were observed across different land-use types, with residential streets exhibiting the highest Shannon diversity index (H = 1.35), followed by the city center (H = 1.02) and vehicular areas (H = 0.64). A normal J-shaped distribution of tree diameters was consistent across all street types, while a silhouette perceptual test highlighted a preference for densely spreading canopies. Residential trees also showed greater structural diversity and varied blossoming seasons. This pioneering study on Byblos' urban forestry provides actionable recommendations for sustainable management and planning, ensuring the preservation of its ecological and visual value.
The Development of Byblos in the Geopolitical Context of the Eleventh and Tenth Centuries BC
Phoenician trade and seafaring activities in the Mediterranean, beginning around the 10th century BC, likely laid critical groundwork for later Phoenician colonization efforts in the western Mediterranean basin. This study reassesses Byblos' historical development during this period by analyzing geopolitical shifts in the Levant following the 12th century BC, which facilitated its expansion and stability. It highlights how Byblos' strategic positioning and maritime trade networks played a pivotal role in shaping its regional influence, offering new insights into the broader context of Phoenician colonization. The research draws on recent archaeological discoveries in Huelva, Spain, to contextualize these findings.
Assessment of thermal comfort in the traditional and contemporary houses in Byblos: A comparative study
Traditional houses in Byblos, Lebanon, offer superior thermal comfort compared to contemporary ones, primarily due to their reliance on natural and passive cooling methods. This finding emerges from a comparative study that analyzed environmental parameters and conducted an occupancy survey involving 46 questions across three categories: occupant demographics, house environment, and architectural characteristics. While traditional structures demonstrated better performance in maintaining comfortable indoor temperatures, both types of houses showed potential for improved energy efficiency. The research provides actionable insights for enhancing thermal comfort while reducing energy consumption, addressing a critical issue exacerbated by climate change.
Byblos in the Late Bronze Age: Interactions between the Levantine and Egyptian Worlds
Byblos emerged as a pivotal hub during the Late Bronze Age, bridging interactions between the Levantine and Egyptian worlds. The study reveals that while archaeological evidence provides structural insights into the city's dynamics, written sources—such as Egyptian texts, Amarna Letters, Ugaritic documents, and Hittite records—offer detailed accounts of specific events and geopolitical engagements. Notably, quantitative analyses of stratigraphy and object distribution, including Mycenaean pottery and Egyptian artifacts like scarabs, demonstrate associations between material culture and occupation phases. The research also introduces novel terms ('Terminus Sub Quo' and 'Terminus Super Quem') to model Byblos's stratigraphy, though challenges in visual clarity persist. This work synthesizes excavation histories with written evidence, positioning Byblos as a key player in the economic and ideological landscape of the Levant.
Deciphering the Byblos “Pseudohieroglyphic” Script
Research challenges the long-held belief that Byblos' 'pseudohieroglyphic' script is a syllabary or alphabet, instead proposing it functions as a restricted mythographic system of eidograms—visual symbols bridging pictograms and ideograms. These signs, nearly identical to the Vinča pre-script found across Europe, appear to invoke goddesses throughout the Old World. The study deciphers over 50 lines of Byblos script by applying knowledge of the Vinça pre-script, contradicting prior interpretations by scholars like George Mendenhall and Malachi Martin. This approach suggests a deeper cultural and symbolic continuity in ancient writing systems than previously recognized.
The Effects of Orientation and Ceiling Height on the Thermal Comfort in the Traditional and Contemporary House in Byblos City Lebanon
A significant correlation between thermal comfort and architectural parameters, particularly building height and orientation, has been identified in Byblos, Lebanon. The study found that these factors play a crucial role in maintaining indoor thermal conditions, which are vital for occupant comfort in the region's hot climate. Researchers used subjective methods, including questionnaires and sensor measurements of relative humidity, air temperature, and air velocity, to evaluate thermal perceptions during winter and summer seasons. The findings underscore the need for adapted strategies to assess thermal comfort, addressing the growing demand for cooling energy in the Middle East, which has tripled over the past 30 years.
Between City, King, and Empire: Will the Real “Lady of Byblos” Please Stand Up?
The 'Lady of Byblos,' a goddess central to the political and religious landscape of Late Bronze Age Byblos, is not merely defined by her proper name but by her role as a unifying figure within the city's complex social-political system. This study shifts focus from identifying her true name to understanding her significance in mediating interactions between centralized imperial governance and decentralized collective structures. Through this lens, the goddess emerges as both an integral part of Byblos’s order and a symbol of how deities shaped ancient political realities, offering new insights into the interplay of power dynamics in ancient societies.
The metal sheet figurines from Byblos: evidence of an Egyptian import and adaptation
Recent analysis of metal sheet figurines from the UNESCO World Heritage Site of Byblos reveals they may have originated as Egyptian imports, subsequently adapted locally. These tiny, thin copper alloy, silver, or gold figurines—depicting primarily male human figures in a standing position—were discovered across multiple deposits on the acropolis, dating from 2100 to 1650 BC. The study identifies a foundation deposit at Deir el-Bahri, part of Montuhotep II's mortuary complex (c. 2020 BC), containing similar Egyptian-manufactured figurines, providing strong evidence for their foreign origin before local reinterpretation. This challenges the long-held assumption that such figurines were exclusively a Gublite product, offering new insights into cross-cultural exchange and artistic development in the region during this period.
Seismic estimation of casualties and direct economic loss to Byblos city: a contribution to the ‘100 resilient cities’ strategy
A seismic risk assessment for Byblos, one of the oldest continuously inhabited cities and a UNESCO World Heritage Site, reveals significant potential for casualties and direct economic damage from earthquakes. The study models structural building damage, fatalities, and financial losses to support Byblos' resilience strategy under the '100 Resilient Cities' initiative. It identifies critical gaps in seismic preparedness and provides actionable recommendations for emergency planning, prevention, and recovery efforts. By integrating these findings into local governance strategies, authorities can enhance civil protection and mitigate the impact of future seismic events on this culturally significant site.
Byblos in the Late Bronze Age
Byblos, often perceived solely as a center for wood trade during the Late Bronze Age, emerges as a dynamic and multifaceted city deeply intertwined with regional geopolitics. Marwan Kilani's study reveals how Byblos evolved through periods of prosperity and decline, shaped by complex interactions of economic, political, and ideological factors. The research combines written sources with a fresh reanalysis of archaeological evidence to reconstruct the city's 'biography,' offering new insights into its role beyond mere trade. This approach highlights Byblos as an active participant in broader Late Bronze Age dynamics, challenging simplistic narratives about its historical significance.
Heavy Metals Accumulation Effects on The Photosynthetic Performance of Geophytes in Mediterranean Reserve
A two-year study at Bentael natural reserve, Byblos-Lebanon, revealed that road construction adjacent to the site led to significant heavy metal pollution, particularly affecting the geophyte species Urginea maritima. The research found that lead levels in plant leaves increased over time, while chromium uptake decreased post-road inauguration. Aluminium and cadmium showed initial spikes following construction but later declined. Photosynthetic activity was adversely impacted, with chlorophyll levels initially declining before rebounding, whereas pheophytin concentrations surged near the road. These findings highlight the risks of landscape activities on natural reserves, demonstrating that U. maritima serves as a sensitive biomonitor for airborne pollution.
Single microtremor method for estimating site fundamental frequency at a site in the historical city of Byblos - Lebanon
Researchers successfully applied the single microtremor method to estimate the site fundamental frequency at a historical site in Byblos, Lebanon. This non-destructive, low-cost technique, which analyzes ambient noise, was validated using one-dimensional site response analysis and demonstrated stability across different measurement durations. The study highlights the method's suitability for urban environments due to its deep penetration capability, speed, and minimal impact on heritage sites. Pre-processing steps were employed to mitigate industrial noise interference, ensuring accurate results.
The Obelisk Temple in Byblos and its predecessors
A significant archaeological study reveals the evolution and significance of the Obelisk Temple in Byblos, one of the oldest continuously inhabited cities in the world. The research highlights the temple's role as a cultural and religious center, tracing its architectural and iconographic development alongside its predecessors. Through meticulous analysis of ceramic artifacts, inscriptions, and material culture, the study reconstructs the temple's historical layers, providing insights into the religious practices and societal structures of ancient Phoenicia. This comprehensive approach combines archeological excavation data with iconographic studies to offer a nuanced understanding of Byblos' cultural heritage. The findings underscore the temple's importance in the broader context of Near Eastern civilizations, contributing valuable evidence to the study of UNESCO World Heritage Sites.
Deposit f (Nos. 15121–15567) in the Obelisk Temple at Byblos: Artefact Mobility in the Middle Bronze Age I–II (1850–1650 BC) between Egypt and the Levant
A significant discovery at the UNESCO World Heritage Site of Byblos reveals that a large deposit of Middle Bronze Age I–II artefacts (1850–1650 BC), previously overlooked, provides critical insights into the material culture and trade relations between Egypt and the Levant. The deposit, comprising 455 objects—including 294 faience figurines—was likely manufactured in late Middle Kingdom Egypt and imported to the Levant, indicating frequent cultural exchanges during this period. Preliminary analysis suggests these artefacts were part of a structured deposit, although their exact dating and purpose remain unresolved. This finding challenges traditional views on artefact mobility and trade dynamics between Egypt and the Levant, offering new perspectives on the economic and social interactions of the time.
Lebanon and tourism: coastal encroachment: case of Byblos beaches
Coastal encroachment by touristic property owners in Lebanon, particularly in Byblos, is linked to the country's centralized governance structure, lack of tourism planning, and corruption. The study identifies these factors as major contributors to the degradation of coastal areas, which are vital for Lebanon's tourism industry. Through fieldwork and data analysis, the research highlights the need for improved coastal tourism management, empowerment of municipalities, and adherence to governance principles to address these issues effectively.
Tell el-Dabca and Byblos: New Chronological Evidence
A re-evaluation of the Royal Tombs at Byblos, leveraging material from both recent excavations and older museum collections, provides new chronological insights that challenge long-standing assumptions about their dating. The study synchronizes the tombs' stratigraphy with that of Tell el-Dabca, a key site in the Levantine coast, using evidence including Egyptian prestige objects linked to 12th Dynasty kings Amenemhet III and IV. While previous scholarship largely dated these burials to the Middle Bronze Age IIA period (MB IIA), this research offers refined temporal frameworks by cross-referencing local, Egyptianizing, and Egyptian materials with Tell el-Dabca's stratigraphy. Conducted under the EU MSCA project 'Egypt in the Levant,' the findings aim to resolve ongoing debates about the tombs' chronology, particularly regarding Tomb I and II, which contain royal artifacts.
Dynamic properties of Byblos municipality building with soil-structure interaction using geophysical methods
Research reveals that the Byblos Municipality building, a critical infrastructure for disaster response, exhibits dynamic properties influenced by soil-structure interaction (SSI), with potential resonance risks during seismic events. The study employed the horizontal-to-vertical spectral ratio (HVNR) method to analyze ambient noise recordings, identifying structural frequencies and damping characteristics while also determining natural soil frequency. Multichannel analysis of surface waves (MASW) was used alongside classical geotechnical tests to assess subsurface stiffness and shear wave velocities. Comparative analysis with a finite element model (FEM) and conventional building code formulae highlighted discrepancies in resonance frequency predictions, underscoring the need for refined seismic risk mitigation strategies. This work provides critical insights into SSI dynamics for earthquake-resistant design in historically significant coastal urban areas.
La région de Byblos de la fin du VIe au début du IIIe millénaire : formation d’un réseau territorial
A recent study sheds light on the territorial organization of Byblos, a significant proto-urban and urban center in the Levant, from the late 6th to early 3rd millennium BCE. Through extensive archaeological prospection covering a 14 x 7 km area, researchers identified 24 human installations dating back to recent prehistory. By analyzing spatial data and ceramic technology, they reconstructed a network of territorial and techno-cultural relations, revealing precise organizational rules that emerged during the proto-urban age and exhibited remarkable continuity. This research significantly advances our understanding of the formation and development of complex societal structures in ancient Levantine regions.
Earthquake Damage Estimations of Byblos Potable Water Network
Aging water infrastructure in Byblos, Lebanon, faces significant seismic threats due to the region's moderate to high earthquake risk. Research assessed potential earthquake damage to the city's potable water network using advanced modeling techniques, including Geographic Information System (GIS) data preparation and Ergo Platform analysis with lifelines fragility functions. The study evaluated three likely earthquake scenarios, revealing critical vulnerabilities in the network that could lead to substantial disruptions. Findings highlight the urgent need for mitigation strategies, such as infrastructure strengthening, to enhance resilience against seismic events.
The Maritime Approaches to Ancient Byblos (Lebanon)
A long-sought Bronze Age harbor basin at ancient Byblos, Lebanon, has been identified after 17 years of field investigation. This discovery provides physical evidence for the maritime trade hub described in historical texts like the Report of Wenamun. The geo-archaeological research program 'Byblos and the Sea,' launched in 2011, confirmed the silted-in harbor's location at the southern foot of the city through multiple indicators. This finding sheds new light on the maritime approaches to Byblos, bridging textual records with archaeological evidence.
Osiris in Byblos?
A new interpretation of Plutarque's account suggests that Byblos, renowned as a hub for the trade of precious wood, served as the origin for the timber used to craft Osiris' coffin. This symbolic connection is supported by ancient Egyptian texts from the tomb of Mentuhotep IV, which reference wood as predestined material for coffins. The study proposes that Plutarque's narrative about Isis discovering and freeing Osiris' coffin hidden within a tree trunk in Byblos may be a metaphorical allusion to this historical trade significance rather than a literal event.
The Lion's Gate and the Persian Wall in Byblos opening the doors of digital representation to the cultural heritage of a resilient city in Lebanon
Digital photogrammetric modeling of the Lion's Gate at Byblos' Persian Wall demonstrates a promising approach to enhance the dissemination of cultural heritage and support urban planning efforts. This method, applied as part of a broader strategy for preserving the UNESCO-listed archaeological site, offers remote access to historical data for scholars, tourists, and planners. The preliminary research suggests that such digital representations can bridge gaps in knowledge transfer and aid in the valorization of resilient cities like Byblos, which is also recognized as one of the '100 Resilient Cities.' Future surveys aim to expand this model into a shared web repository, further enriching the understanding and conservation of this ancient site.
A Monetary and Political History of the Phoenician City of Byblos in the Fifth and Fourth Centuries B.C.E.
Phoenician coins from the Persian period, particularly those from Byblos (modern Jbeil, Lebanon), offer unprecedented insights into the political and economic history of the region, challenging long-held assumptions derived from Greek sources. A comprehensive catalog of 1,662 silver Byblian coins, analyzed through numismatic techniques including monetary inscriptions, iconography, and manufacturing processes, reveals details about coin circulation, trade exchanges, and conflicts involving Greeks, Cypriots, and Egyptians in the eastern Mediterranean. The study by Alain and Josette Elayi, spanning four stages of research—economy under Persian rule, hoard analysis, weight investigation, and monetary/political history—provides a Semitic-language perspective, correcting biases from Greek historical accounts.
Byblos, Lebanon
Byblos, Lebanon, emerged as a pivotal Mediterranean port during the third millennium BCE due to its strategic role in timber export. The site's significance stemmed from its proximity to the cedars of Lebanon, a critical source of coniferous wood for Egyptian construction and shipbuilding, which Egypt lacked. Archaeological evidence, including stone vases inscribed with names of 2nd Dynasty Egyptian kings and other artifacts dating from the 3rd to 6th Dynasties, underscores Byblos' deep historical ties with Egypt. This study highlights Byblos as a key hub for cultural exchange and economic activity, bridging Sumerian and Egyptian influences in the ancient world.
L’Enceinte Sacrée et les origines de Byblos
The Sacred Enclosure of Byblos, initially believed to be the oldest monument in the city dating back to the late 4th millennium BCE, has been re-evaluated through stratigraphic and architectural analysis. Research demonstrates that its earliest phase is no older than the first half of the 3rd millennium BCE, coinciding with the establishment of Byblos as a Mediterranean metropolis rather than evolving from a prehistorical village. This challenges the traditional paradigm of continuous urban development, suggesting Byblos emerged ex nihilo, founded on a protohistoric settlement without direct continuity.
Selected papers from the 6th International Congress on Fossil Insects, Arthropods and Amber Byblos, Lebanon,14-18 April 2013
The 6th International Congress on Fossil Insects, Arthropods and Amber held at Byblos, Lebanon, in April 2013, highlighted significant advancements in the study of fossilized arthropods and amber. The congress brought together international experts to present findings that deepen our understanding of ancient ecosystems, particularly those preserved in Lebanese amber. Key contributions included detailed analyses of fossil insect diversity, paleoenvironmental reconstructions, and comparative studies with modern arthropod lineages. The research approach combined rigorous taxonomic analysis with cutting-edge paleontological techniques, offering new insights into the evolutionary history and ecological dynamics of fossil insects and their habitats.
The Lady of the Titles: The Lady of Byblos and the Search for her »True Name«
A linguistic analysis of Phoenician inscriptions from Byblos reveals that 'Lady of Byblos' (Baalat Gubal) was indeed considered a proper name by the ancient inhabitants, despite its semantic transparency. The study challenges the long-standing assumption that such titles could not be proper names and demonstrates this through distinctions in writing conventions found in two Byblian inscriptions. This finding is significant as it sheds light on the naming conventions of divine entities in the ancient Levant, where semantically transparent names were not uncommon.
News from an Old Excavation: Two Hitherto Unnoticed Measure Capacity Signs on an Egyptian Stone Vessel of the Middle Kingdom from Royal Tomb II at Byblos
A previously unnoticed discovery on a Middle Kingdom Egyptian stone vessel from Royal Tomb II at Byblos reveals two measure capacity signs, rare even within Egypt. These signs, found on the vessel's lid bearing King Amenemhat's cartouche, provide new insights into the use of such markings during this period. The study examines these signs in relation to the vessel's actual capacity, contributing significantly to our understanding of Middle Kingdom measurement practices and material culture.
Nouvelles recherches archéologiques à Byblos
Recent archaeological research at Byblos has uncovered significant new insights into the site's ancient layers and urban development. The study, published in Comptes rendus des séances de l'Académie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres, reveals evidence of continuous habitation from the Neolithic period through the Bronze Age, with particular focus on the Middle Bronze Age (2000–1550 BCE). Excavations and stratigraphic analyses exposed well-preserved architectural remains, pottery, and artifacts that provide a clearer picture of Byblos' role as a major maritime and cultural hub during this era. The research employs advanced stratigraphic techniques, including detailed mapping and artifact analysis, to reconstruct the site's evolution over time.
Elite Emulation and Patronage Relationships in the Middle Bronze: The Egyptianized Dynasty of Byblos
Rulers of Byblos in the Middle Bronze Age adopted Egyptianized language, administrative titles, and religious traits as elite emulation practices to differentiate themselves from local peers and gain prestige through patronage bonds with Egypt. These relationships, rooted in early Old Kingdom interactions, were sustained by the exchange of high-value goods. The study argues that such cultural borrowing was a strategic move to align with Egypt's esteemed elite, reinforcing Byblos' status in the northern Levant and Euphrates region.
Hathor and Isis in Byblos in the Second and First Millennia BCE
Egyptian goddesses Hathor and Isis were prominently worshipped in Byblos during the second and first millennia BCE, with Hathor's cult presence dating back to the third millennium. This study reveals their diverse manifestations and roles in Byblos by analyzing their Egyptian origins, the circumstances of their arrival, and their cultural significance. While some instances remain uncertain, the research reconstructs how these deities were integrated into local religious practices, offering insights into cross-cultural religious dynamics during this period.
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