Publications
Building Peace at Sites of Memory: Community Relationships with UNESCO World Heritage in Post-Genocide Rwanda
Rwanda's recent inscription of genocide memorials (Nyamata, Murambi, Gisozi, and Bisesero) on UNESCO's World Heritage List highlights the tension between peacebuilding, community participation, and political constraints in post-genocide contexts. While the management plan for these sites marks a shift toward greater community engagement compared to past Rwandan heritage practices, it still faces significant limitations due to narrative inclusivity challenges, national politics around genocide memory, and international World Heritage regime influences. This study analyzes these dynamics, revealing how even peace-oriented sites grapple with the complexities of participation and governance in post-conflict settings.
Survivor Agency in the Post-Genocide Memorialization Process in Rwanda
Survivor agency plays a pivotal role in shaping post-genocide memorialization processes, yet it has been largely overlooked in academic discourse. This study highlights how survivors, alongside local communities and organizations, actively contribute to the creation and narrative of memorial sites, particularly at the grassroots level, rather than being passive recipients of state-driven initiatives. Through extensive fieldwork and survivor testimonies, researchers demonstrate that memorialization is a multifaceted process involving state efforts, institutional actors, and grassroots participation. This challenges the dominant narrative that reduces memorialization to questions of state power, enriching the discourse on transitional justice and collective memory.
Memorial museums and burial sites: Rwanda’s unfinished memory work
Rwanda's memorial museums, initially built by survivors and local communities to bury genocide victims, have evolved into interactive spaces that engage with visitors while reflecting the country's mourning culture. A study highlights how the aesthetic design choices of Rwandan architect Vedaste Ngarambe in three memorial sites—Bisesero, Gatwaro, and Ngoma—encode both the stories of massacres and the local community's grief. The research reveals that these memorials shift from functional burial sites to artistic, trauma-informed spaces, demonstrating a broader trend in memorialization practices. By analyzing architectural design, the study offers insight into how memory is constructed, preserved, and experienced in post-genocide Rwanda.
Design elements evoke embodiment at cultural sites in Rwanda and South Africa
Design elements at memorial sites can significantly enhance visitor emotional engagement with historical atrocities, fostering deeper empathy and connection. A visual essay examines three genocide or apartheid memorials—Bisesero (Rwanda), Apartheid Museum, and Prestwich Memorial (South Africa)—revealing how architectural details and object placement encourage physical and emotional interaction. These strategies move visitors beyond intellectual understanding toward embodied experiences that promote healing, reconciliation, and a more profound response to humanitarian tragedy.
Dark tourism and Rwandan media industries: Promoting nation and the mythology of memory
Rwandan memorial sites, particularly those associated with the genocide, reveal a complex interplay between national narratives and local meanings. While official memorials like Nyamata, Murambi, Gisozi, and Bisesero present curated, reconciliatory stories, unofficial sites such as unmarked burials carry deeper emotional significance for communities. This duality challenges the unified narratives promoted by the government and international bodies, highlighting how public and private spaces in Rwanda are repurposed with multifaceted meanings. The study examines this dissonance through discourse analysis and fieldwork, offering insights into how memory is constructed, contested, and mythologized in post-genocide Rwanda.
The micro-politics of remembering “the 1994 genocide against the Tutsi” in Rwanda
State-funded genocide memorials in Rwanda, designed to commemorate victims of the 1994 Genocide against the Tutsi, may inadvertently perpetuate political tension and spiritual violence. Research reveals that the politicization of anonymous human remains—central to the government's efforts to establish irrefutable evidence of the genocide—has transformed these sites into sources of conflict rather than healing. Qualitative studies conducted since 2007 among memorial staff, survivors, bystanders, and other affected individuals in Karongi district highlight how authoritarian governance prioritizes state interests over survivor needs, leading to negative mental and physical health consequences. This study underscores the complex interplay between commemoration, politics, and trauma in post-conflict contexts.
Trauma Heritage as Memory Justice: Sites and Dilemmas in Rwanda
Trauma heritage sites, such as those in Rwanda—Nyamata, Murambi, Gisozi, and Bisesero—serve as powerful tools for memory justice, preserving evidence of the 1994 genocide to confront impunity and negligence. These sites, emerging from a broader 'era of trauma heritage' in the Global South, challenge marginalized narratives by spatializing memories of violence, fostering truth-telling, and promoting societal repair. However, their visibility remains elusive, both for those directly affected and distant observers, highlighting inherent tensions in such memorialization efforts.
Dark tourism: The “heritagization” of sites of suffering, with an emphasis on memorials of the genocide perpetrated against the Tutsi of Rwanda
A growing global trend sees sites of war, genocide, and massacres being recognized as cultural heritage, a process known as 'heritagization.' This phenomenon, coupled with the rise of 'dark tourism'—where visitors seek out locations of mass suffering—is examined in a study focusing on the memorials of the 1994 genocide against the Tutsi in Rwanda. The research reveals how these sites, once symbols of atrocity, are now being framed as heritage destinations, drawing both academic and public interest. The study employs qualitative analysis to explore this shift, highlighting its implications for memory, tourism, and the preservation of traumatic histories.
Dignity in Death and Life: Negotiating Agaciro for the Nation in Preservation Practice at Nyamata Genocide Memorial, Rwanda
A study of the Nyamata Genocide Memorial in Rwanda reveals that the concept of 'agaciro' or dignity, central to Rwandan nation-building, is both a powerful material practice and an uncertain principle. The research examines how preservation efforts at the memorial reflect the state's commitment to dignifying genocide victims' remains, which is intricately linked to restoring dignity for living Rwandans and shaping national identity. Through an analysis of a joint Rwandan-American preservation initiative, the study traces historical and contemporary manifestations of this complex relationship, highlighting its implications for the post-genocide nation's engagement with its defining moment.
Imagining genocide heritage: Material modes of development and preservation in Rwanda
Rwandan genocide memorials at Nyamata and Ntarama reflect how global discourses of development and preservation are adapted to local contexts, shaping their material form. The study finds that these sites embody a blend of state-led development ideals, UNESCO authenticity standards, and the government's need for tangible evidence of genocide. Material interventions vary between sites due to differing influences, demonstrating that heritage materialization arises from dynamic interactions between international frameworks and national narratives.
Narratives of Ethnic and Political Conflict in Burundian Sites of Persuasion
Burundian memorial sites, including Nyamata, Murambi, Gisozi, and Bisesero, reflect local partisan narratives rather than a unified national historical memory of ethnic violence. Unlike Rwanda, these sites lack international positioning for tourism and instead serve as tools of persuasion aligned with the ruling party's perspective at the time of their construction. The study reveals that Burundian government-supported memorials have not consistently advocated for reconciliation or national remembrance but have been shaped by contradictory local efforts to commemorate genocide and ethnic conflict, primarily for a domestic audience in this densely populated country.
Of other times: Temporality, memory and trauma in post-genocide Rwanda
Post-genocide Rwanda, survivors' engagement with memorial sites reveals complex temporal practices that challenge linear narratives of time. Care-taking rituals and imaginative processes create a symbolic time-reversal, while the materiality of memorials preserves the past in the present. Annual commemoration ceremonies construct multiple temporal logics, including homogenization and cyclical trauma-time, countering simplistic 'before and after' transitional justice frameworks. The study, based on extensive fieldwork and participatory observation, demonstrates that survivors actively reshape their relationship with time through mnemonic practices, offering a nuanced understanding of post-traumatic temporality.
The Art of Reconciliation in Rwanda
Rwandan art—through literature, theater, film, and memorial sites—serves as a powerful tool for reconciliation beyond ethnic divides. Unlike traditional human rights scholarship that focuses on trauma, this study highlights art's recuperative potential in state-led reconciliation efforts post-genocide. By analyzing Rwandan creative works, the research identifies three distinct genres of reconciliation: transfiguration, trial, and memorialization. These genres challenge simplistic ethnic narratives, demonstrating how overlapping artistic expressions foster 'commonality within difference,' a key factor for successful reconciliation politics.
(Re)cognising the corpse: individuality, identification and multidirectional memorialisation in post-genocide Rwanda
Rwanda's memorial sites—Nyamata, Nyarubuye, and Murambi—function as powerful commemorative grounds despite the lack of individualised corpses. A key insight is that the corpse, often symbolizing death and mourning, has become a means for the Rwandan community to confront their loss, even in its anonymous form. This shift in perception challenges traditional narratives that portray victims as faceless. The study examines literary depictions by Jean Hatzfeld, Boubacar Boris Diop, and Philip Gourevitch, revealing how corpses are described as literal parts of the landscape, reflecting a transformation in national consciousness. By analyzing both fictional and autobiographical texts, the research highlights the corpse's evolving significance in post-genocide memorialization.
Mobilising the dead? The place of bones and corpses in the commemoration of the Tutsi genocide in Rwanda
Rwanda's genocide memorial sites, particularly those commemorating the Tutsi genocide, prominently feature bones and corpses as symbolic elements. A historical analysis reveals that these remains have evolved from being highly visible symbols of suffering to being dematerialized in support of reconciliation policies. The study, based on archives from Rwanda's genocide memory commissions and interviews with key memorial actors, demonstrates how the hypermateriality of bodies has been strategically managed over time to serve both commemorative and reconciliatory purposes.
Messages of Hope: Using Positive Stories of Survival to Assist Recovery in Rwanda
A groundbreaking initiative, 'Messages of Hope,' demonstrates that positive storytelling by genocide survivors can significantly aid recovery and foster hope. The program encourages Rwandan survivors to share their stories of survival, growth, and healing, countering the pervasive narrative of trauma. By focusing on future-oriented narratives, it aims to increase feelings of efficacy and connectedness, leveraging research showing the benefits of hopefulness and social support for vulnerable populations. This study outlines the development and early implementation of the initiative, highlighting its potential as a model for other contexts of vulnerability.
The Politics of Haunting and Memory in International Relations
International Relations traditionally overlooks the role of dead bodies and memorialization practices, but this study reveals how statecraft relies on constructing clear divisions between life and death. Drawing on Jacques Derrida's concept of hauntology, it explores the politics of memory through three empirical cases: Rwandan genocide memorials (including Nyamata, Murambi, Gisozi, and Bisesero), undocumented immigrants dying at the US-Mexico border, and 9/11 memorialization. The research offers a unique perspective by examining these spaces from the viewpoint of dead bodies, challenging conventional narratives in critical international relations, security studies, and memory studies.
The Tutsi body in the 1994 genocide: ideology, physical destruction, and memory
Bodies have become central to the politics of memory surrounding the 1994 Rwandan genocide, serving as both forensic evidence and focal points in memorial sites like Nyamata, Murambi, Gisozi, and Bisesero. The study reveals that these memorials emphasize the 'practices of cruelty' employed during the genocide, including detailed inventories of weapons and methods used to kill Tutsis. This constructed ideology of dehumanization had alarming consequences for the physical destruction of Tutsi bodies. The research approach involved analyzing Rwandan institutional efforts in memorializing the genocide, focusing on how these ideologies influenced the treatment and representation of Tutsi bodies.
Tourist experiences of genocide sites: The case of Rwanda
Tourists visiting genocide memorial sites, such as those in Rwanda, often engage with these locations for meaningful and emotionally challenging reasons, contrary to the common perception of voyeurism. A study analyzing visitor experiences at the Kigali Genocide Memorial found that tourists approach such sites with positive intent, despite initial trepidation, and leave with a deeper understanding of the genocide's horror and suffering, as well as a desire to learn more. This research builds on previous work by examining both travel blogs and survey data, revealing that genocide tourism—though a subset of dark tourism—serves as a powerful educational tool rather than a mere act of morbid curiosity.
Twenty Years After Genocide: The Role of Psychology in the Reconciliation and Reconstruction Process in Rwanda
Rwanda's path to recovery after the 1994 genocide demonstrates that societal interventions can serve as large-scale social psychological experiments, offering insights into reconciliation and reconstruction. The study highlights six key observations: the genocide's unprecedented intensity; bystander inaction and challenges for outsiders; the coexistence of perpetrators and survivors; the dual role of media in violence and peacebuilding; Rwanda's unique political and social interventions; and the need to further explore memorialization's impact on harm repair. These findings underscore that genocides, including Rwanda's, ultimately fail to achieve their destructive aims, as evidenced by the country's remarkable recovery efforts.
Beauty versus tragedy: thanatourism and the memorialisation of the 1994 Rwandan Genocide
Rwanda's genocide memorial sites are increasingly being integrated into its national tourism product, a process that both challenges and facilitates the work of site guardians. This duality reflects the complex interplay between thanatourism—tourism motivated by death or tragedy—and the ongoing reconciliation efforts following the 1994 Rwandan Genocide. The study critically examines this contested memorialisation process, drawing on theories of genocide, heritage, and tourism to highlight its implications for both local communities and international visitors.
2010 Paul Hanly Furfey Lecture * Sacred Space and Collective Memory: Memorializing Genocide at Sites of Terror
This lecture explores how memorial sites, particularly those at former locations of terror, serve as sacred spaces for collective memory and mourning. It highlights the universal human experience of genocide, examining the ways these sites encode suffering and atrocity while functioning as warnings to future generations. Drawing on fieldwork from Ravensbrück in Germany and Nyamata and Ntarama in Rwanda, the study analyzes the politics of memorial culture and the social construction of memory across different cultures and geographies. The research underscores the significance of public spaces in national memory, particularly in the context of mass trauma and the commemoration of crimes against humanity.
"We Cry On the Inside": Image Theatre and Rwanda's Culture of Silence
Image theatre emerges as a promising method to break Rwanda's persistent culture of silence surrounding the 1994 genocide, revealing 'unexpected truths' about personal experiences that conventional dialogue approaches have failed to uncover. The study, conducted through workshops in 2007 and 2008, adapted Augusto Boal's participatory theatre techniques to address site-specific challenges in Rwanda. Findings suggest that this approach can foster personal exchanges about the genocide, offering potential for addressing trauma and ethnic tensions. The research highlights the need for community-based dialogue methods that resonate with Rwandan survivors, as traditional therapeutic or NGO-led initiatives have struggled to engage participants effectively.
Comprehend the Incomprehensible: Kofi Setordji's Travelling Memorial of the Rwanda Genocide
Kofi Setordji's travelling memorial, a mobile art installation, serves as a poignant and innovative response to the Rwanda Genocide, aiming to make the incomprehensible comprehensible. This study explores how Setordji's work, through its mobility and interactive elements, challenges traditional memorialization practices by engaging communities in multiple locations across Africa and Europe. The research employs qualitative methods, including interviews with artists, curators, and visitors, to analyze the installation's impact on collective memory and remembrance. By focusing on the interplay between art, memory, and globalization, this study highlights the potential of mobile memorials to transcend geographical and cultural boundaries, fostering a more inclusive and dynamic approach to commemorating historical trauma.
The politics of mourning: Survivor contributions to memorials in post-genocide Rwanda
Survivors of the 1994 Rwandan genocide have played a significant and distinctive role in shaping memorialization efforts, contributing to a survivor politics of memory that intersects with trauma and grief. While state-sanctioned memorials dominate the landscape, survivor-driven initiatives have also left a lasting impact, particularly at sites like Nyamata, Murambi, Gisozi, and Bisesero. The study examines how survivors' experiences and perspectives have influenced the creation and maintenance of these memorials, highlighting their role in preserving collective memory and navigating the complexities of post-genocide healing.
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