Publications
The Ritual Landscape at Persepolis: Glyptic Imagery from the Persepolis Fortification and Treasury Archives
A new corpus of glyptic imagery from Persepolis reveals previously unpublished and visually complex representations of fire altars and temples, offering the most extensive, well-dated, and contextually rich evidence for understanding ritual practices and religious iconography in early Achaemenid Iran. This study provides a significant advancement in the field by analyzing impressions from administrative tablets dating between 509–457 BC, linking them to the reign of Darius I. The findings challenge traditional interpretations and contribute to the development of a religious topography for the Persepolis-Naqš-e Rostam region, bridging visual evidence with built environments.
Deep Learning and Transformer Models for Groundwater Level Prediction in the Marvdasht Plain: Protecting UNESCO Heritage Sites—Persepolis and Naqsh-e Rustam
A transformer-based deep learning model achieves high accuracy (R² = 0.83, RMSE = 6.15 m) in predicting groundwater levels and subsidence rates near UNESCO World Heritage Sites Persepolis and Naqsh-e Rustam, outperforming traditional deep learning methods by over 40%. The model integrates synthetic aperture radar data with hydrometeorological and biophysical parameters to quantify groundwater stress, revealing critical subsidence risks (exceeding 200 mm/year) that threaten Achaemenid stone reliefs. This approach provides a scalable framework for early-warning systems in heritage conservation, offering actionable insights for sustainable aquifer management.
Minero‐chemical and provenance analysis of Achaemenian lapis lazuli cylinders from Persepolis
Achaemenian lapis lazuli cylinders from Persepolis, dating to c. 550–330 BCE, were found to originate from the same or similar mines, likely located east of the Iranian Plateau in Badakhshan, Afghanistan. This conclusion was drawn through advanced mineralogical and chemical analysis techniques, including wavelength-dispersive X-ray fluorescence spectroscopy, inductively coupled plasma-mass spectroscopy, X-ray powder diffraction, and scanning electron microscopy with energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy. The study suggests that Persian artists utilized the ancient East-to-West trade route to source lapis lazuli for decorative objects, providing new insights into Achaemenian trade networks and material culture.
Trips to the King, Taxation, and the New Year in the Persepolis Fortification Archive
A new analysis of the Persepolis Fortification Archive reveals that trips to and from King Darius I's court peaked around the Persian New Year (509–493 BCE), especially for journeys involving distant regions. These trips were not only administrative but also served a symbolic purpose, reinforcing the unity of the heterogeneous Achaemenid Empire while facilitating tax collection. The study demonstrates that the New Year period was crucial for both the organization of imperial governance and the demonstration of imperial cohesion.
From the Field to the Bookshop. Shaping Persepolis in the Early 18th century
Early 18th-century travelers, including Jean Chardin, Engelbert Kaempfer, and Cornelis de Bruijn, faced significant challenges in accurately documenting Persepolis' monuments due to social, material, and environmental factors. Their fieldwork observations and subsequent transformations into published books and engravings were influenced by these conditions, leading to potential inaccuracies, particularly noted in de Bruijn's work. The study highlights how the unstable nature of Persepolis as an archaeological site and the travelers' efforts to represent it through mobile material supports compromised their claims to truth, revealing the complexities of early historical knowledge representation.
Integrity of the Cultural Landscape of Persepolis
Persepolis, the Royal Ensemble of the Achaemenid Empire, exemplifies a groundbreaking architectural language that symbolized imperial unity and cultural synthesis. Built from 521 to 486 BCE by Darius I, its design—characterized by sacred square forms, proportional systems, and intricate bas-reliefs—set a precedent for Persian architecture that endured through centuries. The site's integrity as a World Heritage property hinges on its territorial context in Fars, Iran, where Achaemenid elements, including the Royal Terrace at the foot of Mehr Mountain and nearby tombs, contribute to its historical significance. This study evaluates the cultural landscape's integrity by analyzing its original urban plan, architectural motifs, and the enduring influence of Persepolitan design on subsequent Persian architecture, while also considering the site's destruction by Alexander the Great in 330 BCE.
The field monitoring of influential biodeteriogenic agents on the historic rock surfaces in Persepolis-UNESCO World Heritage Site
A study at Persepolis identified key biodeteriogenic agents that threaten the historic rock surfaces. These agents, which include biological and environmental factors, were found to significantly contribute to the deterioration of the site's archaeological features. The research employed field monitoring techniques to assess the impact of these agents over time, providing critical insights into their role in the degradation process. This work highlights the urgent need for targeted conservation strategies to protect this culturally significant landmark from further damage.
Karstic spring wetlands of the Persepolis Basin, southwest Iran: unique sediment archives of Holocene environmental change and human impacts
Karstic spring wetlands in the Persepolis Basin, southwest Iran, serve as unique sediment archives that record Holocene environmental changes and human impacts. These wetlands, characterized by their anastomosing structure and formation under specific geological conditions—such as karstic limestone aquifers, gentle slopes, and semiarid climate fluctuations—offer valuable insights into past environmental dynamics. The study highlights the significance of these ecosystems in collision-related basin-and-range settings dominated by karstic limestones. Additionally, the wetlands have played a crucial role in attracting human settlements, with archaeological materials embedded in their stratigraphy providing evidence of successive civilizations from the Elamites to early Islamic entities. However, many of these ecosystems have been lost due to recent intensive human activities.
Preservation of Cultural Heritage via Education of Children, Utilizing Visual Communication: Persepolis as a Case Study
Educating children through visual communication effectively preserves cultural heritage, as demonstrated by the case study of Persepolis. This approach leverages universally understandable visuals to instill appreciation for cultural treasures in young minds, fostering long-term societal preservation. The study proposes diverse visual strategies tailored for Persian students, balancing educational potential with practical limitations. By focusing on future generations as heritage stewards, this method bridges the gap between traditional preservation efforts and dynamic, engaging learning experiences.
The Finishing Technique of the Stone Monuments of Persepolis: Further Studies and New Findings Through the Use of Non‐Destructive Analytical Techniques
A new study confirms that Achaemenid builders and sculptors at Persepolis used fluorapatite, derived from burning animal bones, to create a white pigment layer on stone monuments. This technique was employed specifically during the Xerxes period or later, while earlier monuments used gypsum for the same purpose. The research, part of the 'From Palace to Town' project, utilized non-destructive techniques like X-ray fluorescence (XRF) spectrometry and principal component analysis (PCA) on a larger sample set to validate previous findings. This discovery sheds light on the advanced finishing techniques employed in ancient Persian architecture.
Gemelli Careri’s Description of Persepolis
Gemelli Careri’s 17th-century description of Persepolis, one of the Achaemenid Persian Empire’s capital cities (ca. 550–330 BCE), offers a unique lens into the transition from imaginative to more scientific travel writing about archaeological sites. His detailed account—spanning twenty pages with two engraved plates—stands out for its precision and insight, even as it remains largely overlooked in modern studies of Achaemenid Persia. By comparing his observations with those of contemporary travelers and current archaeological knowledge, this study highlights the significance of Gemelli Careri’s work as a bridge between earlier, more fanciful narratives and later, more rigorous scientific approaches to site documentation.
Persepolis West (Fars, Iran): Report on the field work carried out by the Iranian-Italian Joint Archaeological Mission in 2008–2009
Excavations at Persepolis West, conducted by the Iranian-Italian Joint Archaeological Mission between 2008 and 2009, confirmed the location of a built-up area adjacent to the Achaemenid monumental terrace. Eleven trial trenches, guided by geophysical surveys, revealed stratigraphic layers that provided crucial insights into the ceramic traditions of Fars during the pre-Islamic period. Radiocarbon dating supported the chronological context of the findings, which included pottery and other artifacts. This study marked the first stratigraphic excavations in this area, significantly advancing our understanding of Persepolis's urban development.
Authenticity and Restoration: The Benefits of Historical Studies on Re-Examining the Implemented Restorations in Persepolis
A re-examination of restoration efforts at Persepolis, particularly the Gate of All Nations, reveals that historical authenticity was compromised to align with the 1971 celebration of the Persian Empire's 2500th anniversary. The study highlights how contextual analysis of historical documents can challenge accepted restoration practices and offers a new perspective on the arrangement of stone capitals in ancient columns. While long-term restoration efforts by the Italian Institute for Middle and Far East (IsMEO) are generally praised, this research demonstrates the need to critically assess the reliability and influence of historical evidence on preservation methods.
Early Opacifiers In The Glaze Industry Of First Millennium bc Persia: Persepolis And Tepe Rabat
A groundbreaking analysis of glazed bricks from Persepolis and Tepe Rabat reveals the early use of sophisticated opacifiers in Persian glaze production during the first millennium BC. The study identifies lead antimonate as a yellow opacifier and brizziite (NaSbO3) as a white opacifier, with brizziite also found in green and turquoise glazes. Additionally, the research suggests accidental co-formation of these opacifiers alongside CaSb2O6 in some samples. The findings hint at a possible link between Achaemenid glaze techniques and those used by the Mannean culture at Tepe Rabat, offering new insights into ancient ceramic technology and cross-cultural influences.
Painted plaster and glazed brick fragments from Achaemenid Pasargadae and Persepolis, Iran
Achaemenid Persian artisans employed a sophisticated range of materials and techniques to create polychromatic finishes for their architecture, as revealed by the analysis of painted plaster and glazed brick fragments from Pasargadae and Persepolis. The study identified up to five layers of paint on Pasargadae plaster, including pigments like Egyptian blue, malachite green, red ocher, and cinnabar red, while Persepolis floor fragments featured lime plaster with hematite-rich paint layers. Glazed bricks from Persepolis were composed of high-silica material similar to faience, decorated with alkaline glazes containing lead antimonate, magnesium-iron, and copper. The research used non-invasive X-ray fluorescence, scanning electron microscopy, and cross-sectional analysis to examine the fragments' layering stratigraphy and composition, enhancing understanding of Achaemenid materials technology and informing their preservation at the Freer Study Collection and original sites.
The Archaeological Site of Persepolis (Iran): Study of the Finishing Technique of the Bas-Reliefs and Architectural Surfaces
Research at Persepolis reveals that the dark grey limestone used in its imperial monuments was intentionally covered with a thin, whitish layer containing fluorapatite and calcite. This layer likely originated from calcined animal bones, with slaked lime serving as a binder. The discovery of a kiln with calcined bone remains and a waste pit further supports this finding. Additionally, a second white layer, possibly barium sulphate, was found beneath surface encrustation, suggesting remnants of a polychrome finishing. The study, part of the 'From Palace to Town' project, involved petrographic analysis, decay assessment, and conservation treatment testing.
Die altpersischen Keil-inschriften von Persepolis
A pivotal breakthrough in the decipherment of ancient cuneiform scripts, particularly Old Persian, was achieved through the collaborative efforts of Christian Lassen and Julius Oppert. Their work, rooted in comparative linguistics, revealed the phonological structure of Old Persian by analyzing inscriptions from Persepolis. Lassen's 1836 publication, which appeared alongside Eugène Burnouf's independent findings, employed a methodical comparison of cuneiform symbols with Avestan and Sanskrit equivalents. This groundwork was later refined by Oppert in 1847, incorporating insights from Henry Rawlinson's Behistun inscription. The study not only advanced the understanding of Old Persian but also showcased the meticulous process of linguistic reconstruction, including the design of a specialized cuneiform font for clarity.
“Come Then Ye Classic Thieves of Each Degree”: The Social Context of the Persepolis Diaspora in the Early Nineteenth Century
Between 1800 and 1828, British diplomatic and commercial missions systematically removed fragments from Persepolis' stone structures, marking the onset of large-scale diaspora during the Qajar period. Archival analysis traced the provenance of three known fragments (in London and Edinburgh) while quantifying earlier dispersal patterns—distinctly slower than later 20th-century removals. These transactions occurred within a gift economy involving East India Company officers stationed in Persia, revealing how colonial logistics facilitated cultural asset extraction under variable political conditions. The study reconstructs object biographies to estimate dispersal rates, offering new insights into the historical trajectory of Persepolis' architectural heritage.
Effect of Extreme Floods on the Archaeological Sites of Persepolis and Naghsh-e-Rostam, Iran
Extreme floods pose a significant risk to the UNESCO World Heritage Sites of Persepolis and Naghsh-e-Rostam, Iran. A study using hydrological modeling revealed that while a 10,000-year return period flood would not inundate these sites, a probable maximum flood could submerge parts of the Southern Barzan and Platform at Persepolis. The research estimated peak flows for extreme floods and employed the HEC-RAS model to simulate potential flooding scenarios. These findings underscore the need for routine assessments of archaeological sites to mitigate risks from such events over human timescales.
From Susa to Persepolis: The Pseudo-Sealing of the Persepolis Bronze Plaque
A unique bronze plaque from Persepolis, inscribed with Elamite text on both sides, challenges the assumption that such objects were typically sealed. Unlike other finds, this plaque (PBP) was discovered with its obverse face up, while the reverse remained protected by the floor, preserving it better than expected. The study establishes a connection between PBP and Persepolis Fortification tablets through PF 352, linking it to well-documented figures like Huban-ahpi from Susa's Acropole. Paleographical analysis further ties PBP to Neo-Elamite documents, though the use of GAM in its text complicates dating efforts, as this feature is not exclusive to that period. The research clarifies that GAM cannot serve as a definitive chronological marker, refining our understanding of Elamite inscriptions and their historical context.
Persepolis
Persepolis: Discovery and Afterlife of a World Wonder reveals the untold history of archaeological exploration following its destruction in 330 BC, leveraging archival evidence, anecdotal accounts, and unpublished documents. This groundbreaking study reconstructs the evolution of Persepolis from its ancient grandeur to modern rediscovery, offering unprecedented insights into its excavation, visual documentation, and scholarly interpretation. Bridging gaps between archaeology, history, and art history, it serves as a comprehensive resource for scholars and students alike, enriching our understanding of this iconic site's legacy across ancient, medieval, and contemporary Iran.
The Lion-Bull Motifs of Persepolis: The Zoogeographic Context.
A groundbreaking analysis of the lion-bull motifs at Persepolis reveals that these iconic Achaemenian sculptures reflect a blend of near-natural zoomorphology and cultural symbolism, offering new insights into ancient Persian faunal representation. Unlike previous interpretations linking the motifs to astronomical or seasonal cycles, this study demonstrates that sculptors achieved remarkable precision in depicting lion and bull morphology, suggesting a combination of observational accuracy and mythological influence. The research integrates iconographic evidence with skeletal records and biogeographical data, highlighting the importance of non-skeletal faunal evidence—such as ancient texts, coins, and ceramics—in reconstructing holistic views of ancient animal populations. This approach provides a novel framework for understanding subsistence practices and socio-religious structures in protohistoric and early historic Iran.
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