Maṇḍala or Sign? Re-Examining the Significance of the “Viśvavajra” in the Caisson Ceilings of Dunhuang Mogao Caves

A re-examination of the 'viśvavajra' sign in the caisson ceilings of Dunhuang’s Mogao Caves reveals its transformation from a tantric homa (fire offering) maṇḍala symbol to an emblematic representation of the samaya of all Tathāgatas, reflecting shifts in Buddhist esoteric art between the mid-Tang and Western Xia dynasties. By analyzing Cave 361’s well-preserved caisson alongside other regional examples, the study demonstrates how this sign evolved from its original śāntika maṇḍala context to symbolize Vairocana or Rocana under Sino-Tibetan influences in the Hexi Corridor. The research compares mid-Tang and late Tang formats, highlighting a notable shift in format and significance that underscores broader cultural and ritual transformations.

Shen, L. (2024). Maṇḍala or Sign? Re-Examining the Significance of the “Viśvavajra” in the Caisson Ceilings of Dunhuang Mogao Caves. Religions, 15(7), 803. https://doi.org/10.3390/rel15070803